SANITATION  OF 
PUBLIC  BUILDINGS 


WILLIAM  PAUL  GERHARD 


LIBRARY 

OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 


Class 


WORKS    BY    WM.   PAUL   GERHARD 

A  Guide  to   Sanitary  House   Inspection. 

John  Wiley  &  Sons.  3d  Edition.  12mo,  cloth,  1  15  pages. 
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Theatre  Fires  and  Panics;  Their  Causes  and  Prevention. 

John  Wiley  &  Sous.      vii+  157  pages,   12mo,  cloth.     $1.50. 

The  Sanitation  of  Public  Buildings. 

(Hospitals,  Theatres,  Churches,  Schools,  Markets,  and 
Abattoirs.)  John  Wiley  &  Sons,  xi  +  262  pages,  12mo, 
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Modern  Baths  and  Bath  Houses. 

John  Wiley  &  Sons.   xvi  +  311pp.,  130  figs.,  cloth.    $3.00,net. 
House  Drainage  and  Sanitary  Plumbing. 

D.  Van  Nostrand  Co.  13th  Edition.  Sci.  Series  No.  63. 
Illustrated.  231  pages,  32mo,  boards.  50  cents. 

Recent  Practice  in  the  Sanitary  Drainage  of   Buildings. 

D.   Van   Nostrand  Co.      2nd  Edition.     Sci.  Series  No.  93. 
175  pages,  32mo,  boards.     50  cents. 
The  Disposal  of  Household  Wastes. 

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Illustrated.      195  pages,  32mo,  boards.     50  cents. 
Gas  Lighting  and  Gas  Fitting. 

D.  Van    Nostrand  Co.      3d  Edition.      Sci.  Series  No.    111. 

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Sanitary  Engineering. 

D.  Van  Nostrand  Co.      132  pages,  12mo,  cloth.     $1.25. 
Theatres;  Their  Safety  from  Fire  and  Panic,  their  Com- 
fort and  Healthfulness . 

Bates  &  Guild  Co.,  Boston.     iii+ 110  pages,    12mo,  cloth. 

$1.00.  t 

The  Prevention  of  Fire,  Chiefly  with  Reference  to  Hos- 
pitals and  Asylums, 

8vo  pamphlet,  paper,  31  pages.     Published  by  the  Author. 
60  cents. 
The  Superintendence    of   Piping  Installations    in  Buildings. 

(Sanitary,  Hydraulic,  and  Gas  ) 

McGraw  Publishing  Co.     80  pages,  small  8vo,  cloth,     $1.00. 
Sanitary  Engineering  of  Buildings. 

W.  T.  Corastock.  ii  +  454  pages,  103  text  and  6  plate  illus- 
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The  American    Practice  of  Gas   Piping    and    Gas    Lighting 
in  Buildings. 

McGraw  Publishing  Co.      (In  Press.) 

The    Sanitation,    Water-supply    and   Sewage   Disposal    of 
Country   Houses. 

D.  Van  Nostrand  Co.     Illustrated.     (In  preparation.) 


SANITATION 


OF 


PUBLIC   BUILDINGS 


BY 

WILLIAM    PAUL  GERHARD,  G.  E. 

Consulting  Engineer  for  Hydraulic  and  Sanitary  Works;  Mem.  Am.  Soc.  Mech.  Engrs.; 
Corr.  Mem.  Am.  Inst.  of  Architects ;   Mem.  Am.  Public 
Health  Association,  etc. 


FIRST    EDITION 
FIRST   THOUSAND 


OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY 

OF 


NEW    YORK 

JOHN  WILEY  &  SONS 

London:    CHAPMAN   &   HALL,    Limited 
1907 


GENERM 


Copyright,  1907 

BY 
WILLIAM   PAUL  GERHARD 


GHf*  fcrtrnttfir  |Jrm« 
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PREFACE 

THIS  book  is  intended  to  discuss  some  features  of 
sanitation  in  PUBLIC  BUILDINGS,  with  special  reference 
to  Drainage,  Water  Supply,  Lighting,  and  Ventilation. 

Among  public  buildings,  we  may  distinguish: 

(1)  Those  having  a  permanent  population,   both  in 
daytime   and   at   night,   such    as    the    hospitals   of   all 
kinds,    orphan   asylums,   homes   for   aged   people,    and 
prisons  or  jails; 

(2)  Those  having  a  large  gathering  of  persons  only 
during  the  day,  such  as  schools,  court-houses,  markets, 
and  abattoirs ; 

(3)  Those  in  which  people  congregate  for  a  few  hours 
only,  either  in  day  time,  or  in  the  evening  hours,  such 
as  churches  and  theatres. 

Of  the  buildings  mentioned,  I  have  selected  the  hos- 
pitals, or  the  buildings  for  the  care  of  the  sick,  the  feeble- 
minded, or  the  injured  as  being  the  most  important 
ones;  next  the  churches  and  theatres,  where  very  large 
crowds  assemble  during  a  few  hours,  either  for  worship 
or  for  amusement;  following  these  I  speak  of  schools, 
where  large  numbers  of  children  are  crowded  together 
during  the  day  for  instruction,  education,  and  mind 
improvement. 

Of  much  importance,  sanitarily,  are  finally  the  mar- 
ket buildings,  where  the  food  supplies  for  the  popula- 

iii 


iv  PREFACE. 

tion  of  cities  are  kept  for  sale,  and  not  less,  the  abat- 
toirs, where  the  meat  supplies  are  prepared  for  the 
market. 

Accordingly,  .  I  have  divided  the  book  into  five 
chapters,  viz.: 

I.  Hospital  Sanitation. 
II.  Theatre  Sanitation. 

III.  Church  Sanitation. 

IV.  School  Sanitation. 

V.  Sanitary  Features  of  Markets  and  Abattoirs. 

The  volume  is,  in  some  sense,  a  continuation  of  the 
author's  work  "SANITARY  ENGINEERING  OF  BUILD- 
INGS," which  is  devoted  largely  to  the  sanitary  work 
of  dwelling-houses,  apartments,  and  tenement-houses. 

Public  bath-houses  will  be  discussed  in  a  separate 
volume,  entitled  "Modern  Baths  and  Bath  Houses," 
which  the  publishers  of  the  present  book  expect  to 
bring  out  before  the  end  of  the  year. 

Inasmuch  as  there  is,  at  the  present  time,  no  Ameri- 
can book  published,  in  which  the  subjects  mentioned 
are  treated  in  a  practical  way,  it  is  to  be  hoped  that 
this  volume  may  meet  the  same  kindly  reception  which 
was  accorded  to  previous  writings  of  the  author. 

WM.  PAUL  GERHARD,  C.E. 
July,  1907. 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

PREFACE iii 

CONTENTS v 

I.  HOSPITAL  SANITATION 3 

1.  Drainage  and  Sewerage 5 

2.  Sewage  Disposal 8 

3.  Water  Supply 12 

4.  Plumbing  in  General 21 

5.  Some  Plumbing  Details 27 

6.  Subdivision  of  Hospital  Buildings 33 

7.  Water-closet    Rooms    and    Fixtures    for    Hospital 

Wards : 34 

8.  Bath-rooms  for  Hospital  Wards 38 

9.  Lavatories  for  Hospital  Wards 41 

10.  Nurses'  Toilet-rooms 42 

11.  Bath-rooms  for  the  Officers  and  Medical  Staff 43 

12.  Operating  Rooms 43 

13.  The  Hospital  Kitchen 45 

14.  The  Scullery 47 

15.  The  Pantry 47 

16.  The  Hospital  Bakery 48 

17.  Refrigerator  Room  and  Ipe  House . .  49 

18.  The  Hospital  Laundry 49 

19.  The  Boiler-house 51 

20.  The  Drug  Store  and  Dispensary 51 

21.  Water-closets  for  Employees    51 

22.  The  Mortuary  or  Deadhouse 52 

23.  The  Disinfecting  Station 53 


Vi  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

24.  Garbage  Disposal 53 

25.  Sewage  Disinfection 54 

26.  Hot-water  Supply 54 

27.  Water  Supply  for  Fire  Protection  Purposes 55 

Conclusion 56 

Note 56 

Bibliography 57 

II.  THEATRE  SANITATION 65 

1.  Unsanitary  Conditions  in  Theatres 65 

2.  Drainage  and  Sewerage ' 70 

3.  Plumbing 71 

4.  Water-supply  System 75 

5.  Ventilation 76 

6.  Lighting  of  Theatres 82 

7.  General  Sanitation 83 

Bibliography 86 

III.  CHURCH  SANITATION 89 

1.  Sanitary  Defects  in  Churches 90 

2.  Sanitary  Inspection  of  Churches 98 

3.  Application  of  the  Principles  of  Sanitation  to  Churches  102 

4.  Building  Site 103 

5.  Plan  and  Construction 103 

6.  Precautions  Against  Fire  and  Panic 105 

7.  Seating 106 

8.  Dust  in  Carpets  and  Cushions 107 

9.  Artificial  Lighting  of  Churches 107 

10.  Heating  and  Ventilation 108 

11.  Basements  or  Cellars ....  Ill 

12.  Sewerage  and  Plumbing 112 

Bibliography 114 

IV.  SCHOOL  SANITATION 117 

1.  Definition  of  Terms 117 

2.  School  Sanitation 118 

LOCATION  OR  SITE 119 

3.  Choice  of  Site 119 

4.  Area  of  School  Grounds 120 

5.  Soil 120 

6.  Surroundings 120 


CONTENTS.  vii 

SCHOOL  SANITATION — Continued.  PAGE 

7.  Aspect 121 

8.  Trees  on  School  Grounds 122 

9.  Beautifying  School  Grounds 122 

10.  Play  Grounds 122 

THE   SCHOOL  BUILDING 123 

11.  Construction 123 

12.  Safety  from  Fire 124 

13.  Boiler  Room 124 

14.  Walls 124 

15.  Ceilings  and  Floors 125 

16.  Entrances 125 

17.  Corridors : 125 

18.  Staircases 125 

19.  Exits 126 

20.  Disposition  of  Class-rooms 126 

21.  Number  of  Floors 126 

22.  Basement 127 

23.  Fire  Escapes 127 

24.  Sewerage 128 

25.  Assembly  and  Special  Rooms 128 

26.  Exterior  of  Building 129 

27.  Interior  Decoration 129 

THE   SCHOOL  ROOM 130 

28.  Shape  and  Dimensions  of  Class-rooms 130 

29.  Standard  Shape 130 

30.  Length 131 

31.  Width 131 

32.  Height 131 

33.  Floor  Space 132 

34.  Cubic  Space 132 

35.  Floors  of  Class-rooms 132 

36.  Walls  of  Class-rooms 133 

37.  Doors 133 

38.  Lighting  by  Windows 133 

39.  Direction  of  Light— Position  of  Windows 134 

40.  Window  Shades 135 

41.  Blackboards 135 

42.  School  Seats  and  Desks 135 

43.  Wardrobes 136 

44.  Accident  Room 137 


viii  CONTENTS. 

SCHOOL  SANITATION — Continued.  PAOE 

HEATING  AND   VENTILATION 137 

45.  Systems  of  Heating 137 

46.  Heating  by  Stoves 138 

47.  Furnace  Heating 138 

48.  Steam  Heating 139 

49.  Hot-water  Heating 139 

50.  Heating  System  to  be  Designed  by  Experts 139 

51.  Ventilation 140 

52.  Air  Flushing 141 

53.  Requirements  as  Regards  Air  Supply ; 141 

54.  Removal  of  Sources  of  Air  Contamination 142 

55.  Removal  of  Foul  Air. 142 

56.  Ventilation  of  Toilet-rooms 143 

57.  Air  Moistening  and  Temperature  Control 143 

LIGHTING 143 

58.  Daylight  Illumination 143 

59.  Artificial  Illumination 144 

60.  Electric  Light 144 

61.  Gas  Light 145 

62.  Oil  Lamps  and  Candles 145 

FIRE   PROTECTION 145 

63.  Fire  Protection  Apparatus 146 

SANITARY   ARRANGEMENTS 146 

64.  Location  of  Toilet-rooms 146 

65.  Objections  to  Outside  Toilet  Pavilions 147 

66.  Basement  Toilet-rooms •  147 

67.  Water-closet  Fixtures  Suitable  for  Schools 148 

68.  Toilet-rooms  for  Upper  Floors 148 

69.  Teachers'  Toilets 148 

70.  Number  of  Water-closets  Required  for  Pupils 149 

71.  Floors,  Walls  and  Partitions  of  Toilet-rooms 149 

72.  Water-closet  Ranges 149 

73.  Dry-closets 150 

74.  Outside  Closets  for  Country  Schools 150 

75.  Boys'  Urinals .150 

76.  Material  for  Urinals 151 

77.  Types  of  School  Urinals 151 

78.  Care  of  Toilet-rooms 152 

79.  Drinking  Fountains 153 

80.  Lavatories. .                                                                    .  153 


CONTENTS.  ix 

SCHOOL  SANITATION — Continued.  PAQE 

81.  School  Baths 153 

82.  Forms  of  Baths 154 

83.  Advantages  of  Rain-baths 154 

84.  Details  of  Construction  of  Rain-baths 155 

85.  Sewerage 1 56 

86.  Sewage  Disposal 157 

MAINTENANCE    OF    CLEANLINESS 158 

87.  Care  of  Class-rooms 158 

88.  School  Janitors 158 

89.  Daily  Cleaning 159 

90.  Periodical  Cleaning 160 

91.  Disinfection 161 

92.  Dust  and  Rubbish 161 

93.  Sanitary  Inspections 162 

SOME   GENERAL   SANITARY  CONDITIONS 162 

94.  Medical  Inspections 162 

Bibliography 163 

V.  SANITATION  OF  MARKETS  AND  ABATTOIRS 175 

1.  Markets 175 

2.  Abattoirs 175 

MARKETS 176 

3.  Food  Supplies 176 

4.  Development  of  the  Market  Building 176 

5.  Advantages  of  Public  or  Municipal  Markets 178 

6.  Location 179 

7.  Constructive  Features  of  Market  Buildings 180 

8.  Interior  Features 181 

9.  Interior  Equipment 182 

10.  Refrigerating  Plant 183 

11.  Maintenance    of    Cleanliness,   Water    Supply    and 

Plumbing 184 

12.  Ventilation 184 

13.  Lighting 185 

14.  Removal  of  Waste  Food  and  of  Offal 185 

ABATTOIRS 186 

15.  Object  of  Abattoirs 186 

16.  Evils  of  Private  Slaughter-houses 186 

17.  Advantages  of  Central  Abattoirs 188 

18.  Private  and  Municipal  Abattoirs 190 


X  CONTENTS. 

SANITATION  OF  MARKETS  AND  ABATTOIRS — Continued.  PAGE 

19.  Development  of  the  Abattoir 191 

20.  Unsanitary  Conditions  of  Abattoirs .  .  193 

21.  Site  for  Abattoirs 195 

22.  Buildings  Composing  an  Abattoir 196 

23.  Planning  of  Abattoirs 198 

24.  The  Main  Slaughtering  Hall 199 

25.  Features  of  Construction 200 

26.  Floors 201 

SANITARY  FEATURES 202 

27.  Water  Supply 202 

28.  Drainage 204 

29.  Purification  of  the  Waste-water 205 

30.  Lighting . .  205 

31.  Toilet-  and  Bath-rooms 206 

32.  Heating  and  Ventilation 206 

33.  Maintenance  of  Cleanliness , 206 

34.  Mechanical  Equipment 208 

35.  Sanitary  Inspection  Service 208 

Bibliography 210 

APPENDICES 215 

APPENDIX  A. 

Fire  Protection  and  Fire  Prevention  in  Hospitals 215 

In  General 215 

Fire-Extinguishing  Apparatus 216 

Inside  Fire  Apparatus 216 

Outside  Fire  Apparatus 216 

Fire  Pumps 217 

Fire  Mains  and  Water  Mains 217 

Fire  Hydrants .- 217 

Fire  Hose  for  Hydrants 218 

Hose  Carts 218 

Portable  Chemical  Engine 218 

Inside  Fire  Standpipes 218 

Fire  Valves 219 

Fire  Hose  for  Inside  Use 219 

Hose  Reels  or  Racks,  Hose  Couplings  and  Fire  Nozzles.  .219 

Fire  Pails 220 

Chemical  and  Pneumatic  Hand  Extinguishers 220 

Automatic  Sprinkler  System 220 


CONTENTS.  xi 

APPENDICES — Continued.  PAGE 

Fire-alarm  System. . . ". 220 

Hose  Tower  and  House 221 

Hospital  Fire  Brigade 221 

Fire  Districts — Plan  of  Districts — Location  of  Hydrants 

and  Fire  Alarm  Boxes 222 

Fire  Escapes  and  Fireproof  Stairs 222 

Rules  as  to  Fire  Prevention 222 

PRECAUTIONS   AGAINST  FIRE 223 

Matches  and  Tapers 223 

Watchman's  Lamp 223 

Smoking 223 

Fires  in  Grates 223 

Flues 223 

Gas— Gas  Leakage— Jointed  Gas  Brackets 223 

Accumulation  of  Waste  Material 224 

Smell  of  Fire  not  to  be  Disregarded 224 

Everyone  Should  be  Used  to  the  Fire  Appliances — Fire 
Drill.. 224 

IN   CASE   OF    AN  OUTBREAK   OF   FIRE 224 

Extinguishing  Fire 224 

Removal  of  Inmates 225 

Escape 225 

Send  Alarm  to  Nearest  Fire  Station 225 

Keep  Doors  Shut 225 

Free  Breathing 226 

Turn  off  the  Gas  at  the  Meter 226 

Coolness  and  Presence  of  Mind 226 

Clothing  on  Fire 226 

APPENDIX  B 227 

APPENDIX  C 229 

APPENDIX  D 234 

ALPHABETICAL  INDEX 239 


HOSPITAL    SANITATION 


OF  THE 

(    UNIVERSITY  ] 

OF 


I. 

HOSPITAL  SANITATION. 

THIS  subject  is  one  of.  such  magnitude  as  to  render 
it  impossible  to  deal  with  the  same  exhaustively  in  the 
short  limits  of  a  single  chapter.  Nevertheless,  I  shall 
try  to  discuss,  be  it  ever  so  briefly,  the  matters  which 
are  of  most  importance,  namely  the  plumbing,  the 
water  supply,  and  the  sewerage. 

Let  us  assume,  by  way  of  introduction,  that  both 
the  architect  and  the  Building  Committee  of  a  hos- 
pital have  recognized  the  fact  that  the  crowding  to- 
gether of  a  very  large  number  of  disabled  and  diseased 
persons  in  a  confined  area  requires  the  most  complete 
and  carefully  considered  sanitary  arrangements.  The 
application  of  modern  sanitary  principles  and  the  in- 
stallation of  approved  sanitary  appliances,  which  are 
necessary  even  in  the  case  of  ordinary  dwellings,  wherein 
only  a  few  healthy  persons  are  sheltered,  become  of 
paramount  importance  in  the  case  of  sick  and  helpless 
patients. 

Hence  the  first  axiom  in  hospital  construction  should 
be  that  such  buildings  should  under  no  circumstances 
be  monumental  or  palatial  structures.  The  outer  ap- 
pearance of  the  buildings  should  be  characterized  by 
severe  simplicity.  No  money  should  be  appropriated 


4  SANITATION  OF  PUBLIC  BUILDINGS. 

or  spent  for  purely  architectural  display,  for  ornamen- 
tation or  for  outside  show.  On  the  other  hand,  every- 
thing should  be  done  to  make  the  buildings  safe  and 
healthful,  and  it  should  be  the  constant  aim  to  secure 
the  best  hygienic  construction  and  the  latest  approved 
sanitary  appliances.  (See  note  at  end  of  chapter.) 

I  also  wish  to  point  out  and  lay  stress  upon  the  neces- 
sity of  engaging  the  services  of  a  hydraulic  and  sanitary 
engineer  at  an  early  stage  of  the  work,  for  even  in  the 
selection  of  the  site  for  a  hospital,  questions  of  drain- 
age and  water  supply  may  and  will  arise,  which  can 
be  decided  in  the  best  manner  by  the  thorough  knowl- 
edge and  practical  experience  of  such  a  specialist. 

Practically,  it  makes  no  difference  whether  the  hos- 
pital building  is  intended  for  a  general  hospital,  or  is 
to  be  one  of  the  various  special  hospitals,  such  as  a 
fever  hospital  and  hospital  for  infectious  diseases,  or 
a  lying-in  hospital,  a  surgical  hospital,  a  military  hos- 
pital, a  children's  hospital,  or  a  hospital  for  insane 
patients.  The  general  principles  and  arrangements  re- 
main about  the  same,  though  each  may,  in  addition, 
have  some  special  requirements. 

The  two  great  general  sanitary  requirements  for  hos- 
pitals, whether  small  cottage  or  village  hospitals,  or 
large  city  hospitals  of  many  stories,  are: 

(1)  Plenty  of  light  and  fresh  air,  particularly  for  the 
wards,  for  the  toilet-rooms,  the  pantries  and  closets. 

(2)  Absolute    cleanliness,    inside  as  well   as   outside 
of  the  buildings. 

It  will  be  well  to  bear  both  requirements  constantly 
in  mind  in  the  following  discussion.  A  perfect  system 


HOSPITAL  SANITATION.  5 

of  water  supply,  sewerage,  plumbing,,  and  ventilatidn 
will  help  considerably  in  securing  both  conditions. 

i.  Drainage  and  Sewerage. — In  determining  the  site 
for  the  building,  the  drainage  and  sewerage  must  at 
once  be  taken  into  consideration.  Where  the  hos- 
pital is  to  be  located  within  the  city  limits,  the  prob- 
lem generally  is  a  simple  one  and  presents  few,  if  any, 
difficulties,  for  as  a  rule,  a  city  sewer  will  be  available 
for  connection  at  not  too  great  a  distance.  But,  if  the 
building  is  to  be  located  in  the  outskirts  of  a  town, 
or  in  the  country,  where  there  are  no  public  sewers,  it 
will  be  necessary  to  determine  at  once  upon  a  general 
sewerage  scheme.  The  first  matter  to  be  settled  will 
be  the  position  of  the  main  sewer  outfall,  for  upon  this 
will  depend  the  layout  and  the  grades  of  the  sewer 
laterals  and  branches,  and  the  arrangement  and  course 
of  the  house  sewers. 

Another  point  of  importance,  which  requires  early 
consideration,  is  the  question  whether  the  sewerage 
shall  be  arranged  on  the  "separate"  or  on  the  "com- 
bined" system.  In  the  first  system,  the  rain-water 
from  roofs,  yards,  and  roadways  is  excluded  from  the 
hospital  sewers;  in  the  combined  system,  storm-water 
as  well  as  foul  sewage  are  received  in  the  same  sewer 
channels. 

As  a  rule,  it  is  much  better  to  deal  with  the  rainfall 
separately.  The  rain-water  can  often  be  stored  in  cis- 
terns and  may  be  utilized  in  the  laundry  or  in  the 
boiler-room,  and  this  might  with  advantage  be  done 
much  more  often  than  is  actually  the  case.  Again,  it 
should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  sewage  proper  from 


6  SANITATION  OF  PUBLIC  BUILDINGS. 

a  hospital  often  has  to  be  purified  or  dealt  with  in  a 
special  manner,  before  it  can  be  discharged  into  a 
water  course.  In  all  such  cases,  the  admission  of  a 
portion  or  all  of  the  rainfall  increases  the  volume  of 
sewage  to  be  treated — which,  moreover,  sometimes 
has  to  be  pumped — and  hence  renders  any  method  of 
sewage  purification  more  expensive  and  difficult  in 
management.  Another  consideration  bearing  upon 
economy  in  construction,  refers  to  the  size  of  the  main 
sewer  and  of  the  lateral  branches.  Where  the  rainfall 
is  admitted  to  the  sewers,  their  sizes  must  be  calcu- 
lated in  proportion  to  the  maximum  amount  of  rainfall 
to  be  removed.  On  the  other  hand,  where  rainfall  is 
excluded  or  dealt  with  separately,  the  sizes  of  sewers 
will  be  greatly  reduced,  and  a  more  uniform  and  con- 
stant flow  will  be  secured,  which  in  turn  will  make  the 
sewers  more  self-cleansing. 

In  the  majority  of  instances  it  is  undoubtedly  better 
to  arrange  the  sewerage  of  an  isolated  hospital  accord- 
ing to  the  "separate  system." 

In  designing  a  sewer  system  for  a  hospital,  the  fol- 
lowing chief  requirements  must  be  fulfilled.  All  sewers 
should  be  self -cleansing,  free  from  deposits,  and  abso- 
lutely water-tight.  Ample  ventilation  should  be  pro- 
vided to  the  main  sewer  as  well  as  to  the  laterals,  and 
provision  made  for  keeping  the  sewer  lines  accessible 
for  inspection  and  cleaning. 

The  alignment  should  be  as  straight  as  possible,  and 
where  changes  in  direction  are  required,  they  should  be 
made  with  easy  curves  in  manholes.  All  junctions 
should  be  made  with  acute-angled  branches  and  never 


HOSPITAL  SANITATION.  7 

at  right  angles.  Sewers  should  be  laid  at  the  proper 
depth  and  on  true  grades,  and  the  fall  should  be  as 
uniform  as  possible. 

Manholes  and  lampholes  for  inspection  should  be 
placed  at  suitable  intervals  on  all  mains  and  laterals. 
Provision  for  daily  automatic  or  periodic  hand-flushing 
should  be  made  at  the  head  of  all  laterals.  Sewers 
should  be  well  ventilated,  which  is  generally  accom- 
plished by  the  use  of  ventilating  covers  on  the  manholes. 

Hospital  sewers  are  rarely  required  of  such  dimen- 
sions as  to  necessitate  the  construction  of  brick  sewers. 
As  a  rule,  they  consist  of  pipe  sewers,  proportioned  in 
size  to  the  maximum  volume  of  sewage  which  they  may 
be  called  upon  to  carry.  The  best  available  material 
for  small  sewers  is  vitrified  sewer-pipe,  which  is  more 
smooth  and  impervious  than  cement  pipe.  Iron  sewer- 
pipes  are  used  near  buildings,  also  where  sewers  neces- 
sarily cross  under  the  basement  of  buildings,  and 
where  the  sewers  must  be  laid  in  made  ground. 

The  joints  of  vitrified  pipe  sewers  should  be  made 
tight  by  means  of  Portland  cement,  care  being  taken 
in  making  the  joints  that  no  cement  protrudes  on  the 
inside  of  joints  where,  in  hardening,  it  would  form  * 
serious  obstruction  to  the  free  and  uninterrupted  flow 
of  sewage.  The  pipes  require  to  be  laid  on  a  firm  bear- 
ing to  prevent  subsequent  breakage,  and  in  yielding 
ground  it  is  desirable  to  lay  them  on  boards  or  concrete 
foundations.  All  drains  for  sewage  should  be  tested 
when  laid,  first,  as  to  their  tightness,  by  a  water-pressure 
test,  and  second,  as  to  their  inside  smoothness  and 
ability  to  remove  sewage  matters,  which  is  ascertained 


8  SANITATION   OF  PUBLIC  BUILDINGS. 

by  passing  a  wooden  ball  through  the  pipes  from  man- 
hole to  manhole. 

Manholes  should  be  located  at  distances  of  about 
200  or  300  feet,  and  at  every  100  feet  there  should  be 
lampholes  to  facilitate  the  inspection  of  the  pipes  from 
the  manholes.  The  bottom  of  sewer  manholes  should 
be  formed  as  a  semi-circular  channel,  molded  in  cement, 
and  the  sides  of  the  bottom  should  have  a  steep  inclina- 
tion to  prevent  sewage  matters  from  becoming  stranded. 

Where  the  separate  system  of  sewerage  is  adopted, 
the  storm-water  falling  on  roofs  and  yards  may  be 
taken  care  of  in  one  of  three  ways,  i.e.,  it  is  either  col- 
lected and  removed  by  separate  rain-water  drains,  and 
discharged  into  a  nearby  water  course,  or  else  it  is 
gathered  in  rain-water  cisterns  usually  built  under- 
ground, or  finally,  it  may  be  allowed  to  run  off  on 
the  surface  and  into  road  ditches,  or  into  some  water 
course. 

Where  the  ground,  upon  which  the  hospital  buildings 
are  located,  is  damp,  wet,  or  full  of  springs,  drainage 
of  the  soil  is  advisable.  This  is  accomplished  by  special 
lines  of  agricultural  or  land  drains,  consisting  of  porous, 
unglazed  earthen  round  pipes,  laid  with  open  joints  in 
deep  trenches.  The  sewers  for  foul  water  should  never 
be  made  to  fulfill  the  double  duty  of  removing  the 
sewage  and  draining  the  land.  The  subsoil  water, 
after  being  gathered  in  land  drains,  may  be  suitably 
disposed  of  by  discharge  into  an  open  water  course. 
Similar  tile  drains  may  be  necessary  along  the  footing 
courses  of  the  foundation  walls. 

2.  Sewage  Disposal. — Where  the  hospital  sewers  con- 


HOSPITAL  SANITATION.  9 

nect  with  a  city  sewer  system,  the  disposal  of  the 
sewage  need  not  be  further  considered,  except  that 
cases  may  arise  where  it  will  be  advisable  to  arrange 
for  utilizing  a  part  or  the  whole  of  the  sewage  on  hos- 
pital land  for  farm  irrigation  purposes  during  certain 
portions  of  the  year.  On  the  other  hand,  where  there 
is  no  regular  sewerage  system,  the  problem  of  sewage 
disposal  will  confront  the  hospital  authorities.  The 
simple  crude  discharge  of  sewage  into  a  water  course 
is  no  longer  appr6ved,  except  where  the  buildings  are 
located  near  a  very  large  stream,  when  the  immediate 
dilution  and  the  rapid  current  would  render  the  sew- 
age innocuous.  Should  the  water  course  be  one  which 
supplies  drinking-water  to  cities  or  towns,  located 
below  the  hospital,  the  discharge  of  sewage  into  it  is 
generally,  or  else  should  be,  prohibited  by  State  laws 
or  by  the  State  Board  of  Health.  Where  it  is  never- 
theless attempted,  it  will  generally  lead  to  serious 
trouble  or  litigation,  arising  from  the  increasing  pol- 
lution of  the  stream. 

It  is,  therefore,  best  to  prepare  from  the  start  some 
plan  whereby  the  sewage  can  be  purified.  All  plans 
for  the  simple  straining  of  sewage,  or  for  subsidence  in 
sewage- tanks  or  large  cesspools,  should  be  discounten- 
anced, for  in  both  cases  only  the  coarser,  suspended 
impurities  are  held  back,  leaving  the  sewage  of  much 
too  foul  a  character  to  be  discharged  into  any  stream. 

As  a  rule,  it  will  be  best,  where  sufficient  hospital 
land  at  suitable  elevation  can  be  obtained,  to  apply 
the  sewage  to  the  soil,  and  to  effect  its  purification  by 
irrigation  on,  or  by  filtration  through,  land.  Very 


io  SANITATION   OP  PUBLIC  BUILDINGS. 

satisfactory  results  may  also  be  obtained  by  intermit- 
tent nitration  through  artificially-prepared  sand  and 
gravel  filter-beds. 

In  some  cases  it  may  become  necessary  to  use  pumps 
to  lift  the  sewage  on  to  land  suitable  for  sewage  farming. 
The  purification  of  sewage  is  accomplished  either  by 
broad  irrigation,  or  by  subsurface  disposal  or  by 
intermittent  downward  filtration,  the  choice  of  the 
system  depending  upon  the  available  area  of  land 
and  the  proximity  of  the  same  to  the  hospital  buildings. 

The  land  selected  for  sewage  disposal  should  be 
either  naturally  pdrous  or  artificially  under-drained. 
The  sewage  farm  should  also  be  as  remote  as  possible 
from  the  source  of  water  supply,  if  this  is  a  local  one. 
It  is  generally  advisable  to  intercept  all  solid  matters, 
papers,  rags,  etc.,  either  by  a  straining-chamber  or  by 
an  intercepting  tank,  both  of  which  will  need  almost 
daily  attention  and  cleaning.  This  is  particularly 
necessary  in  the  case  of  subsurface  irrigation,  for 
otherwise  the  small  absorption  tiles,  through  which  the 
sewage  is  distributed,  will  soon  clog  up  and  cause  the 
sewage  to  break  up  on  the  surface.  Intermittent  appli- 
cation of  sewage  to  the  soil  is  essential,  otherwise  the 
ground  may  become  saturated  and  swampy. 

Whatever  the  system  of  sewage  disposal  selected, 
its  distribution  on  the  land  and  the  management*  of 
the  sewage  strainer  and  flush-tank  require  intelligent 
attention,  for  without  it  the  result  is  almost  sure  to 
be  a  failure,  which,  owing  to  the  non-acquaintance 
with  the  essential  requirements  of  the  system,  is  only 
too  apt  to  be  attributed  to  faults  in  the  system  of  disposal. 


HOSPITAL  SANITATION.  n 

There  are  cases  where  the  area  of  land  available  for 
sewage  disposal  is  rather  small.  It  may,  then,  be  ad- 
visable to  combine  a  system  of  chemical  precipitation 
with  subsequent  sewage  utilization  on  land.  Where  no 
land  at  all  is  available,  or  where  suitable  land  is  held 
by  the  owners  at  too  high  a  price,  it  may  be  necessary 
to  purify  the  sewage  by  a  chemical  process,  or  by  a 
process  of  aeration,  by  biological  methods  in  septic 
tanks  and  in  contact  filter-beds,  or  finally  by  an  electrical 
purifying  process.  The  chemical  and  electrical  methods 
will  be  generally  found  more  expensive  in  first  cost 
and  in  maintenance  and  more  difficult  in  management, 
than  a  system  of  disposal  by  application  on  land.  On 
the  other  hand,  biological  processes  may  in  many  in- 
stances prove  to  be  more  economical,  both  in  first  cost 
and  in  management,  than  land  treatment. 

A  crude  method,  which  is  unfortunately  too  often 
resorted  to,  where  no  sewer  and  no  large  water  course 
are  available  for  the  discharge  of  the  hospital  sewage,  is 
to  lead  the  sewage  to  large  cesspools,  constructed  with 
loose  sides  and  open  bottom,  from  which  the  sewage 
is  permitted  to  escape  into  the  lower  .strata  of  the 
soil.  This  method  of  disposal  cannot  be  approved 
from  a  sanitary  point  of  view,  as  it  involves  a  long 
storage  of  putrescible  matter,  and  leads  to  a  pollution 
and  defilement  of  the  soil,  and  also  quite  often  to  the 
contamination  of  springs  or  wells.  A  leaching  cesspool 
is  a  sanitary  abomination,  and  it  cannot  for  a  moment 
be  considered  an  attempt  even  of  solving  the  difficult 
question  of  the  disposal  of  sewage. 

Privy-vaults  should  likewise  never  be  used  for  hos- 


OF  THE 

$     UNIVERSITY 


12  SANITATION   OF  PUBLIC  BUILDINGS. 

pitals.  Where  outdoor  conveniences  are  required, 
earth-closets  should  be  erected.  If  not  located  too 
near  the  buildings,  these  will  be  found  unobjectionable 
and  easily  managed,  and  the  enriched  dry  earth  forms 
a  valuable  manure  for  use  on  the  hospital  farm.  It 
must,  however,  be  remembered  that  such  earth-closets 
require  daily  attention,  and  emptying  and  cleaning 
at  frequent  intervals.* 

3.  Water  Supply. — Water  supply  and  sewerage  are 
closely  allied  together.  No  hospital,  having  a  general 
system  of  water  supply,  should  be  without  a  sewerage 
system,  and  on  the  other  hand,  every  hospital  provided 
with  sewerage  facilities  requires  an  abundant  water 
supply  to  secure  the  flushing  out  of  the  plumbing  fix- 
tures, waste-pipes,  and  sewers.  Where  only  one  of 
the  systems  is  provided,  serious  trouble  is  sure  to 
result. 

An  abundant  supply  of  good  and  pure  water  is  a 
prime  necessity.  More  water  is  required  for  hospital 
buildings  than  for  other  institutions,  in  order  to  insure 
the  fastidious  cleanliness  which  I  have  characterized  as 
one  of  the  chief  requirements  of  such  buildings.  Not 
only  must  provision  be  made  for  the  large  volumes 
of  water  required  for  personal  cleanliness,  for  bathing, 
scrubbing,  for  use  in  the  large  laundry,  and  in  the 
boiler-house,  but  a  large  surplus  of  water,  stored  under 
a  sufficient  pressure,  is  required  for  fire  protection  pur- 
poses. 

*  See  the  author's  book,  '*  The  Sanitation,  Water  Supply,  and 
Sewage  Disposal  of  Country  Houses."  D.  Van  Nostrand  Co. 
1907. 


HOSPITAL  SANITATION.  13 

In  the  case  of  city  hospitals,  a  public  supply  is  gen- 
erally available,  and  arrangements  can  usually  be 
made  for  a  large  supply  main  for  the  institution, 
which  main  should  be  not  less  than  6  inches  in  diam- 
eter. Unless  the  city  is  supplied  from  a  private  water 
company,  water  is  generally  delivered  to  hospitals, 
the  same  as  to  other  charitable  institutions,  free  of 
charge.  An  unstinted  use  of  this  important  element 
throughout  the  hospital  is  thus  secured.  But  isolated 
hospitals  located  away  from  the  densely-populated 
centres  of  cities,  village  hospitals,  and  hospitals  for 
insane,  usually  have  to  provide  a  private  and  inde- 
pendent water  system.  In  arranging  and  designing 
such  a  system  of  water  supply  the  following  are  points 
of  importance,  which  should  be  taken  into  considera- 
tion.* 

First,  concerning  the  quantity  to  be  provided,  this 
should  be  very  large  and  ample.  Fifty  gallons  per 
head  per  day  should  be  regarded  as  a  minimum  sup- 
ply. In  many  hospitals  a  much  larger  quantity  is 
consumed  per  day,  and  in  some  of  the  State  hospitals 
for  insane  patients  the  average  daily  quantity  exceeds 
200  gallons  per  day,  which  is  partly  explained  by  the 
lavish  use  of  water  for  bathing  the  patients,  and  partly 
by  the  use  of  automatic  flushing  arrangements  for  the 
water-closets  and  urinals  in  the  insane  wards.  Where 
water  is  pumped,  it  is  desirable  that  the  supply  be 
controlled  and  the  waste  checked  as  far  as  possible,  to 


*  See  also  the  author's  book,  "The  Sanitation,  Water  Supply, 
and  Sewage  Disposal  of  Country  Houses." 


14  SANITATION   OF   PUBLIC   BUILDINGS. 

reduce  the  annual  expense  for  the  fuel  used  in  pump- 
ing, a  matter  to  which  far  too  little  attention  is  gen- 
erally paid. 

The  quality  of  the  water  supplied  to  a  hospital  should 
be  pure,  suitable  for  all  purposes,  and  above  the  slight- 
est suspicion  of  contamination.  Before  determining 
upon  a  source  of  supply,  which  appears  to  be  favorable 
in  all  other  respects,  it  is  necessary  to  make  a  thorough 
examination  of  the  water.  This  involves  a  chemical 
quantitative  analysis,  to  determine  vegetable  and  ani- 
mal impurities;  a  microscopical  examination;  a  bio- 
logical analysis  to  determine  the  number  of  bacteria 
in  the  water  and  the  presence  or  absence  of  any  disease 
germs;  and  finally,  a  sanitary  inspection  of  the  source 
of  supply  and  its  surroundings. 

In  the  case  of  springs  and  wells,  the  inspection  may 
be  confined  to  the  immediate  surroundings  of  the  same, 
but  in  the  case  of  surface-waters,  impounded  by  stor- 
age dams,  the  entire  water-shed  should  be  visited  and 
all  sources  of  soil  or  water  pollution  carefully  studied 
to  ascertain  if  they  can  be  eliminated.  Where  water 
is  to  be  drawn  from  rivers  or  flowing  water-courses, 
both  banks  of  the  stream,  for  quite  a  distance  above 
the  point  of  the  proposed  intake  of  water,  should  be 
examined  for  possible  sources  of  pollution,  such  as 
sewers,  drains,  industrial  wastes,  etc.  As  soon  as  a 
source  of  supply  is  determined  upon,  the  most  strin- 
gent measures  should  be  taken  to  avoid  entirely  all 
subsequent  pollution. 

It  is  likewise  important  that  the  water  should  be 
delivered  to  the  buildings  under  a  good  pressure,  not 


HOSPITAL   SANITATION.  15 

only  because  this  insures  a  better  supply  and  a  con- 
stant head  on  the  upper  floors,  but  also  on  account 
of  the  requirements  of  fire  protection  to  the  hospital. 
The  pressure  should  be  ample  to  give  a  good  fire  stream 
in  the  attic  of  the  buildings.  If  such  pressure  cannot 
be  secured  otherwise,  it  is  necessary  to  provide  storage- 
tanks  at  high  elevations,  generally  in  tank-towers  form: 
ing  part  of  the  building,  or  else  in  outside  elevated 
tanks  to  which  the  water  must  be  pumped,  or  finally 
by  means  of  pressure  tanks  located  underground  or 
in  the  cellars  of  buildings. 

The  source  of  water  supply  may  be  a  spring  cropping 
out  from  the  rocks,  either  at  an  elevation  much  higher 
than  the  hospital,  or  perhaps  located  at  a  lower  level, 
in  which  case  a  pumping-station  must  be  erected.  It 
is  important  to  ascertain  by  gaugings  the  yield  of 
springs  during  a  long-continued  period  of  drought,  for 
many  springs  are  liable  at  such  times  to  flow  a  much 
smaller  volume,  or  to  dry  up  altogether. 

A  single  well,  or  a  series  of  wells,  may  constitute 
the  supply,  and  the  wells  may  be  either  shallow  or 
surface  wells,  or  else  deep  wells,  or,  finally,  flowing 
(so-called  artesian)  wells.  It  may  be  said,  generally, 
that  shallow  wells  are  undesirable  as  being  too  liable 
to  pollution  from  surface  drainage  or  by  soakage  from 
privies  or  cesspools.  Deep  wells,  while  safer  from  pol- 
lution, may  not  yield  water  fit  for  all  uses;  indeed, 
the  water  is  often  too  hard,  i.e.,  highly  charged  with 
mineral  salts  and  not  suitable  for  boiler  or  laundry- 
use.  Heavy  continued  pumping  from  deep  wells  often 
causes  their  subsequent  pollution  by  the  lowering  of 


16  SANITATION   OF  PUBLIC  BUILDINGS. 

the  water  level  and  the  gradual  drawing  upon  the 
underground  sheets  of  water  at  further  distances. 

Again,  water  may  be  drawn  from  a  lake,  pond,  or 
sheet  of  water,  fed  either  from  surface  water,  or  more 
often  from  subterranean  springs.  Sometimes,  water  is 
pumped  to  a  hospital  from  a  river  or  creek  and  purified 
by  nitration,  or  else  an  artificial  storage-reservoir  is 
formed  in  a  drainage  district  by  throwing  a  dam  across 
the  lower  end  of  the  valley,  thereby  collecting  or  "im- 
pounding" the  water  from  the  drainage  area  or  water- 
shed. This  latter  must  be  free  from  all  pollution  from 
sewage  or  field  manure,  and  the  bottom  of  the  reser- 
voir should  be  thoroughly  cleaned  from  all  dead  vegeta- 
tion. Finally,  water  suitable  for  many  purposes,  can 
be  obtained,  where  other  sources  are  unavailable,  by 
collecting  the  rain-water  falling  from  the  roofs  of  the 
buildings  in  underground  tanks  or-  rain-water  cisterns. 
As  a  rule,  however,  the  quantity  so  gathered  would 
fall  far  short  of  the  demands  of  a  hospital. 

Whatever  the  source  selected  may  be,  an  intimate 
knowledge  of  hydraulic  engineering  is  required  to  avoid 
a  mistake  in  the  choice.  Each  source  of  supply  should 
be  judged  as  to  its  character  by  making  the  examina- 
tions and  analyses  aforementioned.  The  special  points, 
in  addition  to  general  wholesomeness,  to  be  looked  into 
are  the  hardness  of  the  water,  which  determines  its 
availability  for  the  steam-boilers  and  in  the  laundry, 
and  also  the  possible  action  of  some  waters  on  metals 
like  lead  or  iron,  for  this  may  have  a  bearing  upon  the 
material  chosen  for  the  service-pipes  and  for  the  water- 
tanks. 


HOSPITAL   SANITATION.  17 

Regarding  the  manner  in  which  water  is  supplied 
to  a  hospital,  we  may  distinguish  -between  a^gravity 
supply  and  a  supply  by  pumping.  The  former  is,  of 
course,  much  to  be  preferred  on  account  of  economy 
in  management,  provided  the  pressure  is  ample  to 
insure  fire  protection. 

Where  pumping  is  required,  we  have  four  systems 
which  I  name  in  the  order  of  their  relative  superiority, 
viz:  Pumping  to  an  elevated  reservoir;  pumping  into 
closed  water-pressure  tanks  in  conjunction  with  air 
pressure  tanks  and  air  compressors;  pumping  the 
water  into  a  stand  pipe  or  an  elevated  tank;  or  finally 
pumping  directly  into  the  water  mains.  The  topog- 
raphy- of  the  hospital  grounds  generally  determines 
the  question  whether  a  reservoir  or  a  stand-pipe  are 
preferable.  Where  sufficiently  elevated  ground  can- 
not be  found  upon  which  to  build  a  reservoir,  an  ele- 
vated tank  or  a  stand-pipe  may  be  used,  or  else  a  pres- 
sure-tank system.  A  stand-pipe  is  more  economical  in 
first  cost  than  a  reservoir,  particularly  if  the  latter  is 
to  be  a  covered  reservoir,  which  has  some  advantages 
over  the  open  reservoirs.  Pumping  directly  into  the 
mains  cannot  be  considered  as  good  as  any  of  the 
other  systems  named,  for  it  has  the  great  drawback  of 
providing  no  surplus  storage  of  water  available  in  case 
of  fire,  though  this  latter  drawback  also  applies  in  part 
to  stand-pipes. 

The  water  supply  for  a  hospital  must  frequently  be 
purified  on  a  large  scale  before  it  is  suitable  for  use. 
This  may  be  done  either  in  large  sand-filter  basins  or 
else  by  mechanical  filter-plants.  Of  all  methods  of  fil- 


18  SANITATION  OF  PUBLIC  BUILDINGS. 

tering  water  on  a  large  scale,  sand  nitration  as  prac- 
ticed in  many  European  water-works  is  undoubtedly 
the  best,  though  it  is  slow  in  action  and  expensive  in 
operation.  Good  results  may  also  be  obtained  by 
using  pressure*  or  mechanical  filter  plants,  which  filter 
the  water  largely  by  straining  and  often  secure  a  per- 
fectly bright  and  clear  effluent  by  the  addition  of  alum, 
causing  a  chemical  precipitation  and  purification.  If 
alum  is  used,  however,  care  should  be  exercised  not  to 
use  too  large  a  proportion  of  the  same,  for  this  would 
result  in  some  free  alum  appearing  in  the  filtered  water 
and  possibly  rendering  the  same  injurious  to  health, 
or,  at  least,  making  the  same  unfit  for  use  in  the  laun- 
dry, by  reason  of  the  rusting  of  the  water  mains,  or 
unfit  for  use  in  the  steam-boilers,  owing  to  the  danger 
of  the  formation  of  boiler  incrustations.  All  filtration 
plants  should  be  arranged  with  a  view  of  easy  cleaning 
of  the  filter  plant,  otherwise  the  filters  may  soon  become 
worthless. 

The  drinking  water  of  a  hospital  should  always  be 
filtered  by  means  of  one  of  the  different  household 
filters  in  candle  form,  consisting  of  porcelain  or  infusorial 
earth,  such  as  the  Chamberlain-Pasteur  filter  or  the 
Berkefeld  filter,  which  latter,  according  to  recent  inves- 
tigations, is  riot  quite  so  slow  in  action  as  the  former, 
and  bids  fair  to  take  front  rank  among  germ-proof 
drinking-water  filters.  The  filtering  material  used  in 
both  filters  named  should  be  cleansed  daily  by  brush- 
ing and  should  be  sterilized  from  time  to  time  to  attain 
good  results  and  to  maintain  a  germ-proof  condition 
of  the  filter.  Unless  this  is  done  with  regularity,  the 


HOSPITAL  SANITATION.  19 

boiling  of  impure  water  is  better  than  any  system  of 
household  nitration. 

When  rain-water  is  stored  and  collected  in  cisterns, 
these  are  usually  built  underground  outside  of  the 
building;  they  must  be  built  perfectly  water-tight, 
and  all  danger  of  contamination  of  the  cistern  water 
must  be  avoided.  The  overflow  of  a  cistern  should 
never  be  connected  with  a  sewer  or  drain  for  foul  water, 
but  may  be  connected  with  the  land  drains,  or  else  a 
special  pipe  should  be  carried  and  discharged  on  the 
surface  or  into  some  ditch  or  road  gutter.  The  outlet 
should  have  a  strainer  to  protect  the  pipe  from  mice 
and  other  animals.  The  cistern  should  be  covered 
and  be  well  ventilated.  It  must  be  easy  of  access  and 
frequently  cleaned  out.  If  possible,  reversible  rain- 
water leader  connections  should  be  used,  to  throw  away 
the  first  washing  from  roofs  which  are  apt  to  be  im- 
pure, or  else  a  small  filtering  device  can  readily  be 
attached  to  a  cistern  to  intercept  leaves,  soot,  and 
other  dirt  from  the  roofs. 

Except  in  cases  where  a  high  pressure  of  water  is 
carried  in  the  mains,  hospital  buildings  require  large 
water-tanks.  These  are  placed  either  on  steel  or  iron 
tower  structures,  or  else  in  the  highest  part  of  the 
building  itself. 

House  service-tanks  should  likewise  be  constructed 
with  a  view  of  preventing  any  pollution  of  the  water. 
They  should  be  built  of  boiler  iron,  of  slate,  or  of  wood, 
either  rectangular  or  circular  in  shape.  .Smaller  tanks 
are  built  of  wood,  lined  with  tinned  copper.  Lead  tank 
linings  are  objectionable  on  account  of  the  danger  of 


20  SANITATION   OF  PUBLIC  BUILDINGS. 

lead-poisoning,  and  galvanized  iron  water-tanks  are 
unsafe  for  similar  reasons.  House  tanks  should  be 
provided  with  covers  to  exclude  dirt  and  dust,  they 
should  have  ventilation  to  the  outer  air,  and  means 
for  frequent  emptying  and  cleaning,  and  the  covers 
should  be  arranged  with  hinged  trap-doors  to  give 
access  to  the  tank  for  inspection.  They  must  be  so 
located  as  to  prevent  all  possibility  of  any  water  con- 
tamination by  gases  from  soil-pipes  or  odors  from 
plumbing  fixtures;  the  tanks  and  pipes  should  also  be 
protected  against  frost.  The  overflow  pipes  from  house 
tanks  should  discharge  into  the  roof  gutter,  or  else 
deliver  over  a  trapped  and  water-supplied  sink  in  the 
basement.  Never  should  an  overflow  from  a  water 
tank  be  connected  with  a  soil-pipe  or  sewer. 

From  the  stand-pipe  or  the  pressure  reservoir  the 
water  is  conducted  to  the  hospital  buildings  through 
lines  of  distribution-pipes,  which  are  laid  in  the  ground 
at  such  a  depth  that  the  possibility  of  freezing  is  ex- 
cluded. Mains  generally  consist  of  cast-iron  pipes,  of 
suitable  thickness,  laid  with  well-caulked  joints,  with 
the  necessary  fittings  or  "specials,"  and  provided  with 
gate  valves  to  control  the  flow  of  water  through  mains 
and  laterals,  also  with  branches  to  outside  fire  hydrants. 
Water  mains  should  be  of  ample  diameter  to  secure  a 
full  supply  to  the  buildings,  and  for  fire  protection 
they  should  not  be  smaller  than  four,  or  better  even, 
six  inches  in  diameter.  In  order  to  prevent  stagna- 
tion of  water  in  the  mains,  and  to  insure  a  supply  in 
case  of  the  bursting  of  a  water-pipe,  it  is  preferable 
to  arrange  the  distribution  system  on  the  "circula- 


HOSPITAL   SANITATION.  21 

ting  plan,"  wherein  all  dead  ends  of  piping  are 
avoided. 

The  service-pipes  in  a  hospital  may  be  either  lead  or 
iron  pipes,  the  latter  generally  made  galvanized  to 
prevent  rust.  Certain  waters  have  a  detrimental  action 
upon  galvanized  pipes,  but  as  a  rule  such  pipes  can 
safely  be  used.  They  are  conveniently  put  up  and 
run,  and  for  hospitals  for  insane  in  particular  they 
are  preferable  to  lead  pipes,  as  not  being  so  liable  to 
be  injured  by  blows  or  other  malicious  interfer- 
ence. 

Where  water  is  pumped,  the  pumping  plant  should 
be  designed  with  skill  and  due  regard  to  economy  and 
management.  Pumps  should  always  be  provided  in 
duplicate  to  guard  against  a  water  famine,  which  in 
a  hospital  would  be  very  disastrous  in  case  of  a  break- 
down of  the  machinery.  Unless  the  gravity  supply 
insures  a  strong  fire  pressure,  it  is  desirable  to  provide 
and  fit  up  in  the  pump  house  a  special  fire  pump,  which 
may  be  either  a  rotary  pump  or  else  a  direct-acting 
steam  pump.  Where  electric  currents  are  available 
for  power  purposes,  the  pumps  are  often  run  by  elec- 
tricity instead  of  steam. 

4.  Plumbing  in  General. — Having  now  discussed  the 
general  topics  of  outside  water  supply,  the  sewerage 
of  a  hospital  and  the  disposal  of  the  sewage,  and  de- 
termined how  pure  water  may  be  supplied  for  use, 
and  how  the  same  water,  after  use,  may  be  promptly 
removed  together  with  all  its  organic  impurities  and 
dejecta  from  the  persons,  and  how  it  can  be  made 
innocuous  before  discharge  into  a  stream,  I  will  next 


22  SANITATION   OF   PUBLIC  BUILDINGS. 

consider  the  inside  plumbing  apparatus  and  plumbing- 
pipe  system  adapted  for  hospitals. 

Plumbing  and  house  drainage,  as  applied  to  hos- 
pitals, are  governed  by  the  same  general  rules  and 
requirements  enforced  in  other  kinds  of  buildings,  and 
it  is  therefore  necessary  to  describe  but  briefly  the 
chief  general  features.  A  certain  number  of  points  of 
more  special  application  will  be  noticed  afterwards. 

In  general,  I  may  say  that  the  arrangement  of  the 
plumbing  should  be  as  simple  and  direct  as  practicable. 
Where  the  buildings  are  two  stories  or  more  in  height, 
the  aim  of  the  architect  in  designing  the  floor  plans 
should  be  to  locate  the  plumbing  in  vertical  groups,  in 
order  to  reduce  the  number  of  pipe  lines  to  a  minimum. 
Horizontal  branches  should  likewise  be  avoided  as 
much  as  possible  on  account  of  the  difficulty  of  giving 
a  sufficient  fall  to  the  waste-pipes. 

The  plumbing  for  hospital  wards  is  best  located  in 
an  annex  pavilion,  cut  off  from  the  ward  by  a  well- 
ventilated  lobby  or  short  corridor.  Rooms  which  con- 
tain plumbing,  should  never  be  entered  directly  from 
the  wards,  and  this  is  of  paramount  importance  in 
the  case  of  surgical  wards.  The  foregoing  remarks 
need  not  apply  to  the  plumbing  of  the  administration" 
building  or  that  of  the  kitchen,  pantry,  and  laundry. 

The  plumbing  system,  which  often  for  convenience's 
sake  may  be  subdivided  into  several  divisions,  consists 
of  vertical  lines  of  soil-  and  waste-pipes.  In  the  base- 
ment or  the  cellar,  as  the  case  may  be,  all  these  lines 
are  gathered  and  connected  into  lateral  drains,  which 
again  join  to  form  main  drain  lines,  or  house  sewers, 


HOSPITAL   SANITATION.  23 

as  they  are  more  appropriately  called.  Wherever  prac- 
ticable, drains  should  be  kept  above  the  cellar  floor 
and  supported  by  brick  piers,  or  hung  from  beams  by 
pipe-hangers  or  clamps.  A  hospital  building  will  have 
one  or  several  lines  of  house  sewers,  according  to  its 
size  and  extent.  It  is  desirable  to  restrict  the  size  of 
the  largest  house  sewer  within  the  building  to  six  inches 
in  diameter.  Each  line  of  house  sewer  should  have  a 
running  or  main  trap,  and  each  trap  should  have  a 
fresh-air  inlet  on  the  house  side  of  said  trap,  extended 
to  a  point  outdoors,  well  remote  from  windows  and 
from  fresh-air  ducts  of  the  heating  apparatus.  It  is 
best  to  extend  the  fresh-air  pipe  two  feet  above  grade, 
and  to  finish  it  with  a  quarter  bend  covered  as  a  pro- 
tection against  obstructions  with  a  brass  air  inlet  grating. 
For  city  hospitals,  it  may  be  difficult  to  find  a  suitable 
place  for  the  air  inlet,  but  I  warn  against  locating  it 
in  a  brick  box  with  iron  grating  set  flush  in  the  side- 
walk near  the  curb,  as  the  gratings  invariably  become 
obstructed  with  mud  and  dirt,  and  in  winter  with 
snow  and  ice.  The  main  traps  of  all  house  sewers  should 
have  cleanouts  and  should  be  kept  accessible  by  man- 
holes built  around  them.  Where  a  hospital  is  com- 
posed of  a  group  of  buildings,  I  hold  it  is  preferable, 
in  order  to  isolate  one  building  from  the  other,  to 
place  a  running  trap  on  the  line  of  house  sewer  for 
each  of  the  buildings. 

All  soil  and  waste  lines  should  be  carried  vertically 
upward  and  be  extended  at  least  the  full  size  through 
the  roof  for  ventilation,  all  pipes  smaller  than  4  inches 
being  increased  to  this  size  at  the  roof,  to  prevent 


24  SANITATION   OF  PUBLIC   BUILDINGS. 

their  becoming  closed  up  in  winter  time  by  hoar- 
frost. 

Soil-,  waste-,  or  vent-pipes  should  never  be  run  to 
and  terminate  in  brick  flues,  as  the  bricks  are  porous 
and  liable  to  absorb  sewer  air  and  to  retain  disease 
germs. 

Where  deviations  from  the  vertical  line  must  neces- 
sarily be  made,  the  offsets  of  vent  lines  and  vent  ex- 
tensions above  the  highest  fixtures  should  always  be 
made  under  an  angle  of  at  least  45  degrees  from  the 
horizontal  line  in  order  to  prevent  any  rust  from  lodging 
in  the  pipe  and  thus  obstructing  the  free  vent  outlet 
at  the  roof. 

All  plumbing  in  a  hospital  building  should  be  sepa- 
rately trapped,  and  the  traps  should  be  set  close  to 
the  fixtures.  Traps  should  be  arranged  in  such  a  way 
that  they  can  by  no  possibility  lose  their  water  seal 
either  from  self-siphonage,  or  from  suction  caused  by 
discharge  of  other  fixtures  on  the  same  line,  or  by 
evaporation,  or  by  back-pressure.  One  method  of 
accomplishing  this  end  is  to  run  vertical  lines  of  air- 
or  vent-pipes  and  to  attach  branches  from  them  to 
the  highest  point  of  each  and  every  trap.  Practically, 
this  prevents  siphonage  in  nearly  all  cases,  but  a  great 
complication  of  the  system  and  the  possibility  of  danger- 
ous by-passes  are  thereby  created.  The  same  object 
can,  without  doubt,  be  attained  by  simpler  means, 
consisting  in  using  traps  with  deep  water-seal  for  water- 
closets,  and  so-called  non-siphoning  water-seal  (not 
mechanical)  traps  under  other  fixture's,  where  the  same 
are  located  within  4  or  5  feet  from  a  well-ventilated  line 


HOSPITAL   SANITATION.  25 

of  soil-  or  waste-pipe.  Long  branch  wastes  must  in 
all  cases  be  extended  separately,  up  to  the  roof,  but 
the  traps  under  the  branches  do  not  need  the  "back- 
air  pipe."  I  call  the  improved  system  the  " one-pipe 
system"  to  distinguish  it  from  the  prevalent  "two- 
pipe  system,"  which  is,  in  my  judgment,  unnecessarily 
complicated  and  much  more  expensive. 

The  new  method,  if  judiciously  applied,  renders  a 
plumbing  system  fully  as  safe  as  the  old-fashioned  and 
cumbersome  method. 

Going  a  step  further,  we  may  apply  this  rule  of  utmost 
possible  simplicity  to  all  parts  of  the  plumbing  work. 
Another  axiom  to  be  borne  in  mind  is  to  make  all  parts 
of  the  plumbing  system  accessible  for  inspection  and 
repairs.  Mechanical  appliances  liable  to  get  out  of| 
order  should  be  avoided.  Mechanical  traps  in  par- 
ticular cannot  be  approved  except  where  there  is  only 
clean  water  flowing  through^the  waste-pipes.  Water- 
closets  with  mechanical  appliances  are  an  abomination 
and  should  never  be  tolerated. 

A  further  modern  maxim,  of  particular  importance  in 
the  case  of  hospital  buildings,  is  to  avoid  all  wood- 
work around  plumbing  fixtures,  to  abolish  pipe-casings 
and  wooden  enclosures  to  fixtures.  All  plumbing  in 
a  hospital  should  be  exposed  plumbing.  Every  line 
of  pipe,  whether  soil,  waste,  vent,  or  supply  line, 
should  stand  free  from  the  walls.  I  cannot  lay  suffi- 
cient stress  upon  the  importance  of  this  method  of  con- 
struction. Water  service-pipes  should  not  be  put  in 
walls  or  horizontally  between  floors,  because  if  so 
placed,  hidden  leakages  of  water  will  cause  more  dam- 


26  SANITATION   OF   PUBLIC   BUILDINGS. 

age  to  decorated  walls  and  ceilings,  and  also  because 
pipes  in  walls,  if  these  are  outside  walls,  are  very  liable 
to  freeze  in  cold  weather  and  to  cause  damage  by  burst- 
ing. I  likewise  urge  doing  away  entirely  with  all  wall 
recesses  or  pipe-casings  for  soil-  or  vent-pipes,  because 
in  case  of  the  joints  leaking  water  or  sewer  air,  it  is 
difficult  or  impossible  to  reach  the  pipes  to  detect  the 
leak.  I  also  disapprove  of  pipe  casings  in  front  of 
wall  recesses,  because  the  enclosed  spaces  constitute 
very  undesirable  runways  for  mice,  rats,  and  roaches, 
and  form  breeding-places  for  vermin.  Whoever  has 
seen  the  untidy,  nay,  sometimes  filthy  condition  of  the 
interior  of  such  pipe-casings,  and  compared  the  same 
with  a  good  example  of  modern  exposed  work,  will 
never  want  to  return  to  the  old-fashioned  methods 
of  doing  plumbing  work.  Another  objection  to  the 
pipe  recesses  is  that  they  act  as  convenient  channels 
or  flues  for  carrying  foul  odors  from  the  cellar  or  lower 
floors  of  a  building  to  the  upper  floors. 

There  is  absolutely  no  good  reason  why  plumbing- 
pipes  should  not  be  kept  in  sight  in  toilet-rooms,  and 
in  pantries  and  through  closets.  Open  pipes  can  always 
be  examined  and  tested,  and,  if  required,  tightened  in 
the  joints  or  repaired  in  case  of  breaks.  Where  they 
pass  through  floors  and  ceilings,  the  openings  can  be 
efficiently  closed  with  plaster,  and  thus  no  inviting 
corners  or  spaces  are  left  for  waterbugs  and  vermin. 
It  should  also  be  noted  that  where  plumbing  work  re- 
mains exposed  to  the  light,  the  mechanic  exercises 
greater  care  in  doing  his  work,  therefore  the  general 
quality  of  the  work  will  be  improved.  Fortunately, 


>e 

=• 


HOSPITAL   SANITATION.  27 

the  prejudice  of  architects  and  owners  against  open 
plumbing  work  has  been  overcome,  and  a  new  era  in 
house  sanitation  has  therewith  begun. 

I  must  not  omit  mentioning  that,  where  this  can  be 
avoided,  no  plumbing-pipes  connected  to  the  sewer 
system  should  pass  through  the  wards  or  through  the 
operating-rooms  of  a  hospital. 

With  open  plumbing  work,  perfect  cleanliness  is 
much  more  readily  maintained,  and  it  is  likewise  pos- 
sible to  exert  more  vigilance  in  regard  to  the  plumbing 
fixtures  and  their  condition. 

Elaborate  display  and  efforts  to  make  the  plumbing 
work  ornamental,  possibly  at  the  expense  of  simplicity 
and  substantial  workmanship,  are  evidently  out  of 
place  in  the  ward  plumbing  of  hospitals.  The  same  is 
true  of  nickel-plated  brass  piping.  It  is  a  mistake  to 
suppose  that  exposed  plumbing  cannot  be  installed 
without  the  use  of  nickel-plated  brass  pipe.  Lead  and 
iron  pipes,  and  even  brass  pipes  and  fittings  left  rough 
outside,  can  be  made  to  look  well  by  bronzing  with 
aluminum  bronze  or  by  enamel  painting. 

5.  Some  Plumbing  Details. — Before  discussing  hos- 
pital plumbing  fixtures,  I  must  consider  some  further 
details  of  plumbing  work,  such  as  the  material,  sizes, 
and  arrangement  of  pipes,  and  I  shall  try  to  give  this 
information  in  as  condensed  form  as  possible. 

No  earthen  pipes  should  be  used  anywhere  within 
the  walls  of  a  hospital.  From  a  point  about  ten  feet 
outside  of  the  foundation  walls,  the  house  sewers  should 
consist  of  extra  heavy  cast-iron  pipes.  Wherever  pipes 
are  carried  above  the  cellar  floor,  heavy  wrought-iron 


28  SANITATION   OF   PUBLIC   BUILDINGS. 

pipes  may  be  used.  The  soil,  waste,  and  vent-pipes 
may  be  either  extra  heavy  cast  iron,  or  else  heavy 
wrought-iron  pipes.  The  former  pipes  are  jointed  with 
lead-caulked  joints,  whereas  wrought-iron  pipes  are 
put  together  with  screw  joints.  Screw  joints  are  su- 
perior to  caulked  joints,  being  more  durable  and  per- 
manently tight.  For  joints  in  cast-iron  pipes  a  new 
material  has  been  put  forth  recently,  consisting  of  a 
mixture  of  steel  and  iron  filings  made  into  a  paste  which 
hardens  quickly  and  becomes  water-tight.  This  mate- 
rial, called  "Smooth  on  Joints"  is  the  invention  of  a 
practical  chemist  who  has  made  exhaustive  tests  of  it 
before  putting  it  on  the  market.  I  have  had  the  same 
applied  to  several  lines  of  cast-iron  pipe  and  found  it 
to  be  quite  tight  under  the  water-pressure  test.  There 
is  not,  however,  sufficient  experience  on  hand  regarding 
its  permanency  and  durability.  Should  it  prove  to 
remain  tight,  it  would  certainly  be  a  great  improvement 
ov>er  the  ordinary  caulked  joint,  and  not  the  least 
advantage  of  the  new  material  would  be  that  it  does 
away  with  the  necessity  of  a  plumber's  furnace  for 
melting  the  lead.  It  would  thus  greatly  reduce  the 
fire  risk  in  non-fireproof  buildings  during  construction. 
Wrought-iron  soil-pipe  systems  are  constructed  of 
pipes  made  rustless,  either  by  galvanizing,  or  by  an 
asphalting  process.  Plain,  so-called  black  iron  pipes 
should  never  be  used  for  house  drainage  purposes.  For 
vent  lines  it  is  better  to  use  galvanized  pipe,  as  these 
are  less  liable  to  rust  than  asphalted  pipes.  For  soil- 
pipes  I  prefer  the  latter  on  account  of  their  greater 
smoothness. 


UNIVERSITY    | 
/ 
HOSPITAL   SANITATION.  29 

The  fittings  for  wrought-iron  pipes  should  not  be 
the  ordinary  steam-fittings,  but  they  should  be  the 
recessed  or  drainage  fittings,  which  were  introduced 
years  ago  by  the  Durham  House  Drainage  Company. 

Soil-pipes  should  be  four  or  five  inches  in  diameter, 
the  former  size  being  sufficient  for  fixtures  in  the  admin- 
istration building  and  also  for  the  wards,  except  where 
there  is  a  very  large  number  of  fixtures  on  the  line. 
In  hospitals  for  insane,  however,  I  prefer  to  use  five- 
inch  soil-pipes  owing  to  the  somewhat  greater  danger 
of  the  soil-pipes  becoming  stopped  up  by  a  wrongful 
use  of  the  water-closets.  Waste-pipes  are  made  either 
two  or  three  inches  in  diameter,  this  depending  upon 
the  character  and  number  of  fixtures  placed  on  the 
line.  Slop-sinks,  for  instance,  require  three-inch  waste- 
pipes.  Hospital  bath-tubs  and  spray-baths  require 
larger  waste-pipes  than  used  in  private  houses  in  order 
to  empty  quickly. 

As  regards  the  inclination  to  be  given  to  the  house 
sewers  and  horizontal  waste-pipes,  one-quarter  of  an 
inch  is  the  minimum  frJl  permissible.  I  prefer  to  give 
to  four-inch  lines  a  fall  of  one-half  inch  to  the  foot, 
and  smaller  waste-pipes  should  have  an  even  greater  fall. 

Connections  of  branch  waste-pipes  with  the  main 
vertical  lines  are  made  with  Y-branches  or  else  with 
T-Y  branches,  but  the  latter  fittings  should  not  be  used 
in  horizontal  lines.  Lead  pipe  should  only  be  used  for 
the  water-closet  connections  and  for  short  waste-pipes. 
In  connecting  the  same  with  iron  pipes,  drawn  brass 
ferrules  or  screw  nipples  should  be  used,  which  must 
be  bell-shaped  and  extra  heavy. 


30  SANITATION  OF  PUBLIC  BUILDINGS. 

Brass  floor-plates  should  always  be  used  for  porce- 
lain water-closets  having  the  trap  above  the  floor,  in 
order  to  insure  a  tight  floor  joint. 

Where  brass  pipe  is  used  for  waste-  or  vent-pipe,  it 
should  be  seamless  drawn  brass  tubing  of  iron  pipe 
gauge,  and  all  connections  should  be  screwed  joints. 
No  slip  or  coupling  should  be  permitted  on  waste- 
or  vent-pipes. 

Clean-outs  should  be  placed  in  sufficient  number  on 
the  line  of  the  drains  and  at  junctions,  bends,  and 
traps,  and  made  accessible.  They  should  be  closed 
with  extra  heavy  brass  screw-caps,  with  thick  flanges, 
and  with  strong  square  or  hexagon  nuts.  To  insure  a 
tight  joint,  there  should  be  at  least  six  engaging  threads. 

Roof  joints  should  be  made  with  copper  or  sheet- 
lead  flashings.  In  case  some  of  the  rain-water  con- 
ductors are  connected  for  special  reasons  with  the 
sewer  system,  they  must  be  properly  trapped.  Inside 
leaders  should  be  of  extra  heavy  cast  iron  or  else  of 
heavy  screw-jointed  wrought -iron  pipe;  outside  leaders 
may  consist  of  sheet  metal. 

No  trap  should  be  placed  at  the  foot  of  any  vertical 
line  of  soil  or  waste-pipe.  All  such  lines  should  be 
fully  ventilated  by  extensions  through  the  roof.  Where 
back-air  pipes  are  used,  I  prefer  extending  them  to 
the  roofs  separately. 

The  pipes  on  the  roofs  should  remain  fully  exposed, 
and  vent  caps  or  return  bends  and  cowls  should  not 
be  used.  Pipes  should  be  kept  away  from  dormer 
windows,  also  from  flues  and  ventilating  skylights. 
Pipes  coming  through  lower  roofs  of  extensions  must 


HOSPITAL  SANITATION.  31 

be  extended  to  the  main  and  higher  roof  whenever  they 
open  too  close  to  windows. 

All  vertical  vent  lines  should  be  dripped  at  the 
bottom  of  the  line  and  care  should  be  taken,  where 
traps  are  backaired,  to  enter  the  branch  vent  into 
the  main  line  above  the  overflow  point  of  the  fixture, 
so  that  the  vent  cannot  act  as  waste  when  the  latter 
should  become  stopped  up. 

Mason's  traps,  D-traps,  bell-traps,  pot-,  drum-,  or 
bottle-traps  should  not  be  used;  likewise  should  mechan- 
ical traps,  with  flap-valves,  gravity  balls,  rubber  float- 
ing balls,  mercury  seals,  etc.,  be  avoided.  Traps  having 
interior  dividing  partitions  forming  the  trap-seal  are 
objectionable  as  being  liable  to  have  sandholes  in  the 
cast  partitions,  which  would  render  the  seal  inefficient. 

All  traps  should  have  trap  or  cleaning-screws,  which 
must  be  arranged  so  as  to  be  below  the  water-line  in 
the  trap,  for  if  on  the  sewer  side  of  the  trap-seal,  they 
may  leak  sewer  air  when  not  tightly  closed.  Lead 
traps  should  be  extra  heavy  and  of  the  same  weight 
as  lead  waste-pipes.  Brass  traps  must  be  of  iron  pipe 
size  and  should  be  manufactured  perfectly  smooth  on 
the  inside,  for  roughness  of  the  interior  of  a  trap  tends 
to  stoppages. 

Every  fixture  should  be  trapped  separately. 

The  sizes  of  traps  for  fixtures  should  be  as  follows: 
for  water-closets  3!  or  4  inches,  for  slop-sinks,  shower- 
and  needle-baths,  and  floor  drains  3  inches,  for  kitchen 
and  other  large  sinks  and  for  wash-tubs  and  spray- 
baths,  2  inches,  for  pantry  and  small  sinks,  for  wash- 
basins, etc.,  i£  inches.  Bath-tubs  should  have  i$  or 


32  SANITATION  OF  PUBLIC   BUILDINGS. 

2-inch  traps,  the  latter  emptying  the  fixture  more 
rapidly.  Urinals  are  usually  trapped  by  2-inch  traps, 
though  i£  inches  would  seem  to  be  ample  in  all  cases. 
Traps  located  under  the  cellar  floor  should  be  made 
accessible  by  manholes. 

In  toilet-rooms  floor  drains  are  often  desirable,  and 
if  used  should  be  very  securely  trapped.  Wherever 
possible,  floor  drains  should  not  be  connected  with  the 
sewer  system.  They,  as  well  as  cellar  floor  drains,  may 
connect  with  the  land  drains. 

No  exhaust  steam  or  steam-pipe  should  be  con- 
nected with  a  sewer  or  soil-pipe,  but  they  should  dis- 
charge into  a  condensing  and  blow-off  tank,  with  outlet- 
pipe  connected  to  the  sewer  outside  the  house-trap. 

Pan-,  valve-,  and  plunger-closets  should  never  be 
used.  All  water-closet  bowls  should  have  flushing 
rims.  Water-closets  having  traps  located  below  the 
floor,  should  have  either  heavy  lead  traps  or  else  iron 
traps  which  must  be  enameled  on  the  inside.  Overflow 
pipes  of  water-closet  cisterns  should  discharge  into 
the  water-closet  bowl.  Overflow-pipes  of  other  fix- 
tures should  connect  with  the  waste-pipes  on  the 
house  side  of  the  trap,  or  else  below  the  water  line. 

Local  vent-pipes  for  plumbing  fixtures  complicate  the 
arrangement  and  are  not  necessary  where  a  good  ven- 
tilation of  the  room  has  been  otherwise  arranged  for. 

Water-pipes  for  plumbing  fixtures  should  never  be 
run  on  outside  walls  or  in  exposed  places  where  they 
would  be  liable  to  freeze. 

A  final  correct  plan  of  the  sewer-  and  drain-pipe 
system,  as  constructed,  should  be  drawn  and  kept  on 


HOSPITAL  SANITATION.  33 

file  for  reference,  or  else  all  changes  made  during  con- 
struction should  be  noted  on  the  original  plans  of  the 
work. 

All  plumbing  systems  should  be  tested,  first,  by  the 
water- pressure  test  when  the  "rough"  work  is  in 
place,  including  the  water-closet  branches  and  the 
branches  to  fixtures;  second,  by  a  smoke  test  when  the 
water  has  been  turned  on  at  all  the  pipes  and  fixtures. 

6.  Subdivision  of  Hospital  Buildings. — In  every 
kind  of  hospital  there  are  certain  sub-divisions,  which 
in  the  case  of  the  larger  and  most  completely  fitted 
institutions  are  generally  located  in  separate  buildings. 
The  sub-divisions  comprise:  first,  the  hospital  wards 
with  their  adjoining  service-rooms,  such  as  baths, 
lavatories,  water-closets,  broom-closets,  and  rooms  for 
the  nurses  in  charge  of  the  wards;  the  administration 
building  with  rooms  and  offices  for  the  superintendent, 
the  steward,  and  the  medical  staff;  the  nurses'  sleeping 
apartments,  toilet  and  bath-rooms,  and  nurses'  dining- 
rooms;  the  matron's  quarters;  the  operating-rooms 
with  rooms  for  the  appurtenances  belonging  thereto; 
the  drug  store  or  dispensary;  the  working  department 
of  the  hospital,  consisting  of  kitchen,  scullery,  pantries, 
and  serving-rooms,  and  dining-rooms  for  the  help;  the 
bakery  and  laundry;  rooms  for  male  and  female  help; 
the  boiler-  and  engine-room,  the  dynamo-  and  pump- 
rooms,  the  disinfecting-room  or  station,  the  mortuary, 
ice-house  and  garbage  crematory,  and  sometimes  a 
stable.  All  these  departments  must  be  fitted  up  with 
more  or  less  plumbing  and  drainage  appliances.  In 
the  following  each  of  these  will  be  briefly  considered. 


34  SANITATION  OF  PUBLIC  BUILDINGS. 

7.  Water-closet  Rooms  and  Fixtures  for  Hospital 
Wards. — The  room  containing  the  ward  water-closets 
should  be  placed  convenient  to  the  ward,  but  not 
immediately  adjoining  the  same.  It  should  be  a  room 
by  itself  and  should  not  contain  the  lavatories  or  the 
baths.  It  should  contain  only  the  water-closets,  the 
urinals,  and  the  slop-sinks.  It  is  better  to  provide 
separate  water-closets  for  nurses  and  attendants. 

The  dumber  of  closets  to  be  provided  for  a  ward 
depends  upon  the  size  of  the  ward.  It  is  usual  to 
estimate  one  closet  for  each  10  patients,  though  this  num- 
ber may  be  slightly  varied  in  the  case  of  insane  patients, 
and  on  the  women's  side  of  the  hospital. 

To  promote  cleanliness,  all  parts  of  the  toilet -room 
should  be  amply  lighted,  and  structural  materials 
should  be  used  for  the  walls,  floors,  ceilings,  partitions, 
and  fixtures  which  are  non-absorptive  and  permit  of 
easy  cleaning.  All  sharp  corners,  mouldings  and  cor- 
nices which  harbor  dirt  and  dust  should  be  done  away 
with.  Woodwork  is  very  absorbent  and  should  not 
be  used  at  all  for  the  wainscoting  of  the  room,  or  for 
partitions.  Common  plaster,  paint,  and  varnish  also 
absorb  organic  impurities  and  cannot  be  approved. 

The  floor  should  be  tiled  with  unglazed  encaustic  tiles, 
or  with  large  slabs  of  marble  or  slate ;  mosaic  tile  floors 
may  also  be  used.  The  floor  is  sometimes  arranged 
so  as  to  pitch  to  one  point,  and  a  floor  cesspool  and 
drain  is  provided,  so  as  to  permit  the  washing  of  the 
entire  room  with  a  hose. 

The  walls  to  a  height  of  at  least  six  or  seven  feet 
should  be  lined  with  glazed  tiles,  or  still  better,  with 


HOSPITAL  SANITATION.  35 

large  slabs  of  marble,  slate  or  soapstone.  The  ceiling 
is  either  arched  with  brick  arches  or  made  of  sheet 
metal  painted  with  enamel  paint.  The  partitions  between 
the  fixtures  should  also  be  of  marble,  slate,  or  of  opaque 
glass.  The  suggestion  to  used  hammered  or  annealed 
glass  for  wall  linings  or  partitions  dates  back  from  1875, 
but  they  have  only  recently  been  manufactured  and 
used.  It  is  preferable  not  to  have  the  partitions  reach 
to  the  floor,  but  to  raise  them  about  eight  or  ten  inches, 
because  this  facilitates  the  cleaning  of  the  floor.  In 
the  same  way,  it  is  better  not  to  extend  the  partitions 
to  the  rear  wall,  but  to  stop  the  same  about  two  inches 
from  the  wall,  so  as  to  be  able  to  reach  behind,  also 
to  avoid  the  sharp  corners  between  partitions  and  wall 
slabs,  which  easily  accumulate  dirt  and  are  difficult  to 
keep  clean. 

Sharp  corners  should  also  be  avoided  between  the 
wall  lining  and  the  floor,  by  rounding  off  the  corners 
or  using  special  round  mouldings  of  tile  or  marble. 
In  the  case  of  hospitals  for  insane,  it  is  usual  to  omit 
the  partitions  between  the  seats.  The  closet  doors  are 
also  often  omitted  where  control  of  the  patients  is 
necessary.  Where  doors  are  used,  they  should  be 
short,  light  flap  doors  not  reaching  to  the  floor,  and 
preferably  hinged  so  that  they  will  stand  open,  except 
when  the  seat  is  occupied. 

Water-closet  fixtures,  to  be  suitable  for  hospitals, 
should  be  of  white  earthenware,  or  where  greater 
strength  is  required  or  a  rough  usage  is  expected,  as 
in  the  case  of  hospitals  for  the  insane,  they  should  be 
made  of  heavy  glazed  fire-clay  or  stoneware.  Iron 


36  SANITATION  OF  PUBLIC  BUILDINGS. 

water-closets  are  not  serviceable  in  the  long  run;  the 
plain  iron  closets  never  look  clean  and  the  enameled- 
iron  bowls,  though  somewhat  better,  soon  lose  the  enamel 
lining  by  chipping  and  then  they  rust  rapidly.  The 
only  suitable  and  sanitary  types  are  the  pedestal  wash- 
down  and  the  siphon- jet  closets,  but  the  latter  are 
more  liable  to  stoppage  and  are  therefore  also  unsuit- 
able, especially  so  for  closets  to  be  used  for  insane 
patients.  All  ornamentation  of  the  closet  bowl  is  of 
course  entirely  out  of  question  in  a  hospital.  Only  the 
plain  white  fixtures  should  be  used.  The  only  wood- 
work should  be  the  seat,  which  must  not  be  a  full  seat 
but  an  open  round  hardwood  polished  seat,  attached 
to  the  rear  of  the  closet  bowl  by  hinges,  so  that  it  may 
be  turned  up  to  expose  the  bowl  for  cleaning.  For  the 
sake  of  cleanliness  a  form  of  water-closet  bowl  offers 
advantages  for  hospitals,  in  which  the  front  of  the 
wooden  seat  is  cut  out,  and  a  vertical  projection  formed 
in  the  front  part  of  the  top  of  bowl,  which  acts  also  as 
a  urine  shield,  and  prevents  the  latter  from  being  spilled 
over  at  the  front  of  the  closet.  Of  late  years  a  modi- 
fied type  of  closet  has  been  used  to  some  extent  in 
hospitals  for  insane,  which  dispenses  with  the  wooden 
seat,  the  top  of  the  bowl  being  formed  in  porcelain  to 
serve  as  the  seat.  In  the  case  of  filthy  insane  patients 
these  closets  offer  certain  advantages.  For  quiet  and 
clean  patients  I  cannot  see  any  objection  to  a  plain 
wooden  seat,  if  the  latter  is  strongly  framed  and  other- 
wise well  made,  so  as  not  to  crack  or  warp.  The  objec- 
tions to  an  all-porcelain  seat  are  that  it  is  cold;  that 
no  seat  attachment  can  de  used  and  therefore  an  auto- 


HOSPITAL  SANITATION.  37 

matic  flush  must  be  arranged  which  is  somewhat  waste- 
ful of  water;  and  there  is  the  further  important  objec- 
tion that  the  inside  of  the  upper  part  of  the  closet 
bowl  cannot  be  readily  examined  and  cleaned. 

For  general  hospitals,  the  flushing  arrangement  t  for 
the  closet  may  consist  of  the  well-known  chain  and 
pull  arrangement;  for  some  of  the  insane  patients  it 
is  better  to  use  an  automatic  seat  attachment  flush  in 
combination  with  either  an  open  or  a  closed  pressure- 
tank,  or  else  a  combination  automatic  and  pull-tank 
may  be  used,  for  in  the  quieter  wards  it  is  found  that 
patients  do  make  use  of  the  pull.  The  flushing-cisterns 
should  be  copper-lined  wooden  tanks,  as  iron  tanks 
rust  aud  stain  the  closet  bowl,  also  because  they  sweat 
in  summer  time  and  cause  drippings  from  the  tank  to 
the  floor.  The  flush-pipe,  should  be  large,  at  least  i\ 
inches  inside  diameter,  of  lead,  of  brass,  or  of  polished 
and  rustless  steel.  Lead  should  not  be  used  in  hos- 
pitals for  insane,  as  it  is  too  easily  dented,  cut,  or 
flattened.  Brass  flush-pipes  may  be  polished  and 
lacquered,  or  else  they  are  finished  in  dark  bronze  or 
have  a  bluish  steel  finish;  they  also  look  well  if  silver 
bronzed  or  painted  with  enamel  paint. 

Urinals  should  be  avoided  as  much  as  possible,  and 
generally  the  water-closet  fixture  may  take  their  place. 
If  required,  urinals  for  wards  should  be  porcelain  fix- 
tures holding  water  in  the  -bowl,  fastened  to  the  marble 
wall  lining,  and  provided  with  automatic  flush-tank. 
If  a  marble  floor  slab  is  used,  it  should  not  have  a  waste, 
for  this  becomes  foul  from  the  drippings  of  the  urine. 
In  some  general  hospitals,  bidets  are  installed  .g 


38  SANITATION   OF   PUBLIC   BUILDINGS. 

women's  side,  and  if  provided  with  a  flush,  they  may 
answer  as  urinettes;  for  insane  patients  such  fixtures 
are  not  to  be  recommended. 

A  slop-sink  may  properly  be  placed  in  the  water- 
closet  room,  for  it  is  a  fixture  intended  to  receive  the 
foul  discharges  from  bed-pans,  chambers,  glass  urinals, 
commodes  and  other  sick-room  utensils,  and  used  for 
the  rinsing  and  washing  of  these  fixtures.  It  must 
therefore  be  treated  much  like  a  water-closet,  and 
should  always  be  of  a  type  with  flushing-rim  and  pro- 
vided with  flushing-cistern.  Hot  and  cold  water  fau- 
cets should  also  be  provided,  and  sometimes  an  upward 
jet  is  added  for  the  rinsing  of  bed-pans,  etc. 

All  fixtures  in  ward  toilet-rooms  should  be  selected 
with  a  view  of  accomplishing  the  most  complete  and 
rapid  removal  of  all  dejecta  and  fouled  liquid  wastes. 
Perfect  flushing  arrangements  and  an  ample  supply 
of  water  for  flushing  purposes  are  required.  Proper 
provision  should  likewise  be  made  for  a  perfect  ven- 
tilation of  the  apartment,  and  under  no  circumstances 
should  any  movement  of  air  take  place  from  the  toilet- 
room  towards  the  wards. 

8.  Bath-rooms  for  Hospital  Wards. — Ward  bath- 
rooms should  be  in  convenient  reach  of  the  ward,  but 
disconnected  from  it  by  a  corridor,  so  as  to  exclude  and 
cut  off  any  steam  vapors.  The  bath-rooms  for  patients 
should  be  separate  from  those  for  the  nurses  and  at- 
tendants. The  room  should  have  plenty  of  light,  and 
windows  should  have  frosted,  opaque  or  frilled  glass. 
The  best  floor  is  a  solid  floor,  made  by  using  I-beams 
and  brick  arches.  These  may  be  covered  either  with 


HOSPITAL   SANITATION.  39 

concrete  and  cement,  or  with  asphalt,  so  as  to  be  water- 
proof. A  nicer  effect  and  appearance  are  gained  by 
adopting  a  mosaic  tile  floor,  or  finishing  the  floor  with 
large  slabs  of  marble,  or  finally  by  using  small  vitreous 
tiles.  Glazed  tiles  should  never  be  used  in  a  bath-room 
as  they  render  the  floor  too  slippery.  A  novel  floor 
finish  consists  in  a  rubber  interlocked  tile  floor,  which 
is  durable,  warm  to  the  feet,  soft  to  walk  upon,  and 
perfectly  sanitary,  though  somewhat  more  expensive 
than  a  tile  floor. 

The  walls  of  the  bath-room  should  be  finished  with 
a  waterproof  and  non- absorbent  material,  such  as 
enameled  brick,  slate,  or  marble,  to  a  height  of  at  least 
6  feet.  Such  a  room  can  be  kept  pure  and  clean  by 
turning  on  a  stream  from  a  hose  and  washing  the 
entire  sides.  As  the  ceiling  is  exposed  to  vapors  of 
steam  it  should  also  be  solid,  either  finished  in  hard 
plaster  and  painted  with  oil  or  enamel  paint,  or  else 
the  same  should  be  constructed  with  sheet  metal. 
The  door  leading  to  the  bath-room  should  be  made 
large  to  admit  a  patient  carried  on  a  stretcher.  The 
bath-room  should  be  well-ventilated  and  must  be  well 
heated.  In  some  hospitals .  this  is  efficiently  accom- 
plished by  heating  the  floor  of  the  room. 

The  number  of  bath-tubs  to  be  provided  depends 
upon  the  number  of  patients  in  the  ward;  it  is  usual 
to  calculate  one  tub  for  each  fifteen  patients;  where 
two  tubs  are  necessary,  one  should  be  a  hospital  tub, 
set  on  rubber-bound  wheels,  so  as  to  be  movable;  it 
should  not  be  fixedly  connected  to  the  plumbing 
pipes.  The  floor  of  the  room  should  be  given  a  good 


40  SANITATION   OF   PUBLIC   BUILDINGS. 

pitch  to  one  point  where  a  floor  drain  should  be  placed. 
The  hospital  tub  is  emptied  at  this  point,  and  large 
hot  and  cold-water  mixing-cocks  should  be  provided 
for  quickly  rilling  the  tub. 

The  fixed  bath-tub  should  stand  free  on  all  sides 
from  the  wall,  so  as  to  enable  the  nurses  to  reach  the 
patient  conveniently  from  any  point.  The  tubs  may 
be  strong  sheet-metal  tubs  standing  free  on  legs  and 
not  having  the  usual  wooden  casing;  or  they  may  be 
porcelain-lined  iron  tubs ;  or  the  more  expensive,  heavier 
porcelain  tubs  with  roll  rim.  As  a  rule,  enameled  iron 
answers  well  enough  as  a  material  for  tubs  if  care  is 
only  exercised  in  the  use  of  the  tub.  The  enamel  is 
somewhat  apt  to  chip  off  or  to  crack,  where  anything 
heavy  is  allowed  to  drop  into  the  tub.  To  avoid  the 
diffusion  of  steam- vapor  in  the  room,  mixing  faucets 
for  hot  and  cold  water  are  used.  In  hospitals  for  in- 
sane patients,  the  supply-valves  should  be  always  out 
of  reach  of  the  patients  to  avoid  accidents  or  intended 
suicide  by  scalding,  or  else  key-valves  should  be  used. 

Of  late  years,  a  much  more  effective,  clean,  and 
economical  method  of  bathing  the  insane  has  been 
introduced,  by  means  of  rain-  or  spray-baths.  In  the 
state  hospitals  of  New  York  State  such  spray-baths  are 
obligatory,  and  tubs  for  patients  are  entirely  abolished. 
The  advantages  of  this  new  method  have  been  uni- 
versally admitted  and  the  old  tubs  are  everywhere 
being  replaced  by  the  simpler  and  better  spray-baths. 
In  some  cases  a  congregate  bath-room  is  fitted  up, 
which  enables  the  simultaneous  bathing  of  a  large  num- 
ber of  patients.  A  good  example,  and  the  first  one 


HOSPITAL   SANITATION.  41 

of  a  large  bath-house  for  insane,  may  be  seen  at  the 
Utica  State  Hospital,  which  was  designed  and  installed 
by  the  writer.  Another  similar  bath-house  has  been 
constructed  under  the  writer's  plans,  specifications, 
and  supervision,  at  the  Long  Island  State  Hospital  at 
Kings  Park.  In  many  of  the  other  hospitals  each 
ward  is  provided  with  one  or  two  spray-baths.  The 
apparatus  is  very  simple,  consisting  of  an  overhead 
inclined  douche  or  nozzle,  supplied  with  mixed  water 
at  a  temperature  not  exceeding  100  degrees  Fahrenheit. 
Special  mixing  chambers  for  hot  and  cold  water  are 
used,  or  else  a  new  appliance,  called  a  "  Gegenstrom " 
apparatus,  in  which  steam  and  water  pass  in  opposite 
directions,  the  water  being  heated  as  it  flows.  This 
does  away  entirely  with  hot-water  tanks  and  mixing- 
chambers.* 

Large  city  hospitals  are  sometimes  provided  with  a 
bath-house  in  a  separate  building,  wherein  all  kinds 
of  medicated  and  special  baths  are  put  up,  including 
sometimes  Russian  and  Turkish  baths,  cabinet-vapor 
baths,  baths  for  hydrotherapeutic  treatments,  elec- 
trical baths,  sun  baths,  sitz  and  foot  baths,  bidets,  etc. 
For  the  treatment  of  skin  diseases  and  of  certain  ail- 
ments like  typhoid  fever,  etc.,  European  hospitals  are 
provided  with  so-called  "permanent  water-baths."  In 
all  bath-rooms  and  bath-houses  special  provision  should 
be  made  for  warming  the  change  of  linen  for  the  patients. 

9.  Lavatories  for  Hospital  Wards. — A  separate  room 
adjoining  the  ward  should  contain  the  lavatories  for 

*  See  the  author's  pamphlets  on  "The  Modern  Rain-bath,"  and 
his  book  "Modern  Baths  and  Bath  Houses," 


42  SANITATION   OF   PUBLIC  BUILDINGS. 

the  patients.  This  room  should  be  finished  in  much 
the  same  manner  as  the  bath-room,  and  it  should  con- 
tain one  wash-basin  for  about  eight  or  ten  patients. 
In  addition,  a  small  shallow  porcelain  housemaid's 
sink  is  often  put  in  this  room  for  drawing  hot  or  cold 
water.  To  discuss  the  type  of  basin  best  adapted  for 
hospitals  would  lead  me  too  far;  I  will  only  mention 
that  all  wash-basins  with  secret  waste-valves  and  hid- 
den overflow-pipes  should  be  avoided.  The  entire 
arrangement  should  be  open  and  unenclosed;  there 
should  be  no  cupboards  and  no  wooden  enclosures. 
The  modern  all-porcelain  lavatories  are  particularly 
adapted  for  use  in  hospital  wards,  as  they  have  no 
plaster-of-Paris  joints  between  the  bowl  and  the  mar- 
ble slab.  All  basins  should  be  quick-emptying  and 
should  have  hot  as  well  as  cold  water  faucets.  It  is 
important  that  each  basin  should  be  separately  trapped. 
In  lavatories  for  insane  patients,  the  hot-water  faucets 
should  have  detachable  key  handles. 

10.  Nurses'  Toilet-rooms. — It  is  desirable  that  sepa- 
rate bath,  lavatory,  and  water-closet  accommodations 
be  provided  for  the  hospital  nurses.  While  the  basins 
and  the  bath-tub  may  be  put  in  one  room,  a  separate, 
apartment  should  contain  the  water-closet.  The  de- 
tails of  these  appliances  do  not  call  for  special  discus- 
sion, for  they  do  not  differ  essentially  from  those  used 
in  private  houses.  For  water-closets  I  recommend  the 
type  known  as  the  pedestal  short  hopper  or  wash- 
down  closets,  with  polished  hardwood  seats  and  with 
cisterns  operated  by  chain  and  pull.  The  trap  should 
be  of  earthenware,  in  one  piece  with  the  bowl,  and 


HOSPITAL  SANITATION.  43 

should  have  about  3  inches  of  water-seal.     The  bath- 
room should  contain  a  tub  and  a  spray-bath. 

In  larger  general  hospitals,  and  also  in  the  hospitals 
for  the  insane,  a  separate  building  is  often  provided 
for  the  nurses,  containing  not  only  bedrooms,  but  also 
sitting-rooms  and  reading-rooms  for  the  nurses,  a  lec- 
ture room  for  the  nurses  of  the  Training  School,  as 
well  as  toilet-rooms. 

11.  Bath-rooms  for  the  Officers  and  Medical  Staff.— 
In   the    administration   building,    provision    should    be 
made   for   toilet-rooms   for   the   executive   officers,   for 
clerks,    and    for    the    medical    staff.     Likewise   should 
bath-rooms   be    attached    to    the  living  rooms    of   the 
resident  physician  or  the  superintendent.     The  plumb- 
ing work  for  these  should  be  of  the  same  character  as 
provided  for  in  private  houses.     I  can  therefore  safely 
pass  these  over,  except  that  I  wish  to  plead  once  more 
for  the   separation   of  the  water-closet  and  the  bath- 
room, and  this  for  reasons  which  I  have  often  set  forth, 
and  which  should  be  apparent  to  all  thoughtful  per- 
sons.    The  water-closet  most  adapted  for  use  in  pri- 
vate bath-rooms  is  the  modern  siphon-jet  closet,  with 
deep    trap-seal    and   with   open    seat    attached    to    the 
bowl,  and  without  back-piece  or  panel-board. 

12.  Operating  Rooms. — Every  hospital  has  either  one 
or  several  operating  rooms,  and  the  larger  clinical  hos- 
pitals are  generally  provided  with  operating  theatres, 
which  are  fitted  up  with  all  modern  requirements  of 
aseptic  surgery,  and  also  contain  more  or  less  plumbing 
work.     It  is  self-evident  that  the  operating-rooms  are 
of   particular    importance    and    require    the    very    best 


44  SANITATION   OF   PUBLIC  BUILDINGS. 

and  safest  plumbing  work,  in  order  to  avoid  the  danger 
of  blood-poisoning  or  contagion. 

All  parts  of  an  operating-room  should  be  so  con- 
structed and  fitted  up  as  to  be  readily  cleaned  and 
made  aseptic.  There  should  be  plenty  of  light,  perfect 
ventilation,  and  abundant  facilities  for  washing  and 
flushing.  All  instruments,  bandages,  utensils,  and  ves- 
sels must  be  made  germ-proof  or  sterilized.-  Sterilized 
water  should  be  available  for  the  operating  surgeon 
to  wash  his  hands  with.  All  tables  and  furniture, 
like  stretchers,  operating-tables,  instrument  cabinet 
cases,  immersion  bowls  and  tables  and  other  accessories 
should  consist  of  white  enameled  wrought-iron  frames 
and  polished  glass  tops.  The  floor  of  the  room  should 
be  tiled  and  provided  with  a  floor  drain  for  washing 
the  floor.  The  walls  and  even  the  doors  are  often  lined 
with  large  slabs  of  marble,  slate,  or  Alberene  stone; 
enameled  face  brick  is  often  used  for  the  walls  from 
floor  to  ceiling. 

No  soil-  or  waste-pipes  connected  with  the  hospital 
sewer  should  pass  through  the  operating  rooms.  The 
plumbing  fixtures  located  in  the  rooms  should  be  dis- 
connected, i.e.,  should  discharge  with  open  mouth  over 
a  trapped  basement  or  cellar  sink  provided  with  faucet. 
The  highest  character  of  workmanship  is  required  at  the 
fixtures  in  the  operating-room.  There  should  be  por- 
celain sinks  with  glazed  roll-rims,  and  without  wood- 
work of  any  kind.  Drain-boards,  if  any  are  required, 
should  be  of  slate,  Alberene  stone,  or  glass.  The  best 
sanitary  wash-stand  fixtures  should  be  used. 

Modern  hospital  wash-stands,  which  consist  of  glass 


HOSPITAL   SANITATION.  45 

bowls  fitted  up  in  connection  with  glass  slabs,  are 
now  purchasable.  These  are  generally  fitted  up  with 
self-closing  pedal  supply- valves,  in  connection  with  a 
nozzle,  giving  either  hot,  cold,  or  mixed  water.  Some- 
times the  basin  waste-valve  is  similarly  operated  by 
a  foot  action.  Pressure  sterilizing  apparatus  for  water 
must  be  provided,  generally  one  for  hot  and  another 
for  cold  water,  likewise  sterilizers  for  surgical  dress- 
ings, bandages,  and  for  surgical  instruments  and  appli- 
ances, also  buckets  to  receive  the  waste  dressings, 
which  are  to  be  burned.  While  these  are  not  strictly 
belonging  to  plumbing  work,  they  require  water  and 
gas-pipe  connections,  drip-pipes,  and  also  steam  con- 
nections. In  a  convenient  location  near  the  operating- 
rooms  there  should  be  toilet-rooms,  where  surgeons  and 
attendants  can  put  on  their  operating  suits  and  where 
they  find  for  use  wash-basins,  water-closets,  urinals, 
and  a  spray-bath. 

13.  The  Hospital  Kitchen. — In  large  hospitals,  the 
kitchen  is  always  located  in  a  separate  building.  In 
smaller  institutions  it  is  placed  either  in  the  basement 
or  on  the  ground  floor  of  a  wing  of  the  building.  In 
a  few  cases  the  kitchen  is  placed  on  or  near  the  top 
floor,  the  idea  being  to  prevent  cooking  odors  from 
pervading  the  other  parts  of  the  hospital. 

The  hospital  kitchen  should  be  light,  airy,  and  well 
ventilated.  Floors  and  walls  should  be  finished  in 
non-absorbing,  easily  cleaned  materials.  The  floor 
should  be  drained  to  one  or  several  floor  cesspools.  A 
sufficient  number  of  kitchen  sinks  of  ample  size  should 
be  provided,  to  draw  water  for  the  cooking  operations 


46  SANITATION   OF   PUBLIC  BUILDINGS. 

and  also  for  the  cleaning,  rinsing,  and  scouring  of 
pots,  kettles,  and  pans.  The  most  durable  sinks  for 
use  in  the  kitchen  of  an  institution  are  cast-iron  sinks; 
those  of  plain  iron,  painted  on  the  outside,  are  un- 
doubtedly the  most  serviceable,  although  not  so  cleanly 
looking  as  enameled  or  porcelain  sinks.  With  the 
rough  usage  which  these  fixtures  unavoidably  undergo, 
the  enameled  iron  would  soon  chip  off  or  crack.  Porce- 
lain sinks,  with  roll-rims,  are  likewise  liable  to  be 
damaged.  In  many  institutions  wooden  sinks  are  used ; 
for  a  few  months  they  will  be  serviceable,  but  they 
soon  rot  and  become  foul  looking  and  smelling,  and  I 
fail  to  see  any  real  merit  in  them  other  than  that  of 
cheapness.  Sinks  generally  require  drain-boards,  which 
likewise  should  not  be  of  wood.  I  have  found  slabs 
of  slate  or  of  Alberene  stone  to  be  durable  and  service- 
able. 

The  kitchen  ranges  should  be  proportioned  to  the 
number  of  people  for  which  cooking  is  to  be  done.  In 
some  cases  this  and  other  cooking  apparatus  are  fitted 
up  by  the  plumbers,  but  as  a  rule  they  are  installed 
by  firms  making  a  specialty  of  such  work.  Even  then 
the  numerous  appliances,  such  as  steam- jacketed  boil- 
ing vessels  for  making  s.oup,  boiling  meat,  vegetables 
or  puddings;  the  tea  and  coffee  copper  urns;  the  gas 
or  steam  ovens,  roasters  and  broilers  will  require  water 
connections,  drip-pipes  for  the  drip-pans,  and  some- 
times gas  connections.  Steam  carving  and  serving 
tables  are  also  placed  in  the  kitchen  unless  the  pantry 
is  very  large,  when  they  are  sometimes  located  in  the 
latter  by  preference.  Inasmuch  as  the  population  of 


HOSPITAL   SANITATION.  47 

a  hospital  is  liable  to  vary  considerably,  it  is  better 
to  provide  all  the  kitchen  outfit  in  duplicate,  so  as  to 
have  facilities  for  cooking  economically  for  a  smaller 
number  of  persons.  Adjoining  the  kitchen  there  should 
be  a  roomy  store-room  for  the  kitchen  supplies. 
v  14.  The  Scullery. — It  is  better  to  sub-divide  the 
various  kitchen  operations  in  such  a  way  that  they 
may  be  carried  out  in  adjoining  rooms.  Where  the 
building  permits  this,  it  is  well  to  have  a  scullery  adjoin- 
ing the  kitchen,  in  which  the  preparing  of  the  veget- 
ables, the  washing  of  potatoes,  and  salads,  of  meats 
and  fruits,  etc.,  may  be  done,  and  also  the  washing 
of  the  plates  and  dishes.  Plenty  of  sinks  should  be 
arranged  and  each  provided  with  hot  and  cold  water 
and  with  drain-board.  In  some  modern  institutions 
the  washing  of  the  dishes  is  done  in  large  dish-washing 
machines,  which,  although  quite  expensive,  effect  a 
considerable  saving  in  manual  labor.  These  and  the 
sinks  should  be  provided  by  the  plumber  with  a  large 
grease  trap.  I  recommend  to  locate  the  grease  trap 
outside  of  the  building,  because  it  has  to  be  frequently 
cleaned,  and  this  operation  is  by  no  means  a  pleasant, 
one.  The  general  finish  of  a  scullery  should  be  similar 
to  that  of  the  kitchen. 

15.  The  Pantry. — A  pantry  is  always  planned  near 
or  immediately  adjoining  the  dining-room.  It  should 
contain  sinks  for  the  washing  of  the  finer  dishes,  of 
the  glasses,  cups,  and  saucers  from  the  dining  table. 
While  porcelain  or  slate  sinks  are  cleanly  and  sanitary, 
they  are  hardly  suitable  for  a  hospital  pantry,  where 
owing  to  the  carelessness  of  servants  too  many  dishes 


48  SANITATION   OF  PUBLIC   BUILDINGS. 

and  glasses  would  be  broken  in  them.  Copper  sinks 
are  probably  best  adapted  for  the  purpose,  although 
the  evil  of  breaking  porcelain  and  glass  is  somewhat 
mitigated  where  rubber  mats  are  used  in  porcelain 
sinks.  Owing  to  the  greasy  nature  of  the  dish-water, 
it  is  often  necessary  to  use  a  grease  trap  in  connection 
with  the  sinks.  Hot  plate  warmers  are  also  put  in  the 
pantry,  likewise  germ-proof  niters  for  the  drinking- 
water  used  at  the  table,  and  occasionally  small  port- 
able refrigerators  for  butter,  jellies,  and  smaller  articles 
of  food.  It  is  important  that  the  refrigerator  should 
not  be  directly  in  connection  with  any  soil-pipe  or 
sewer.  It  should  always  be  thoroughly  disconnected 
and  have  an  open  waste  or  discharge  over  a  trapped 
and  water-supplied  sink. 

1 6.  The  Hospital  Bakery. — In  large  hospitals  the 
bakery  is  placed  in  a  separate  building,  while  in  smaller 
institutions  the  baking  is  done  in  a  basement  room 
near  the  kitchen.  Here  bread  and  pastry  are  prepared, 
and  the  operations  generally  require  several  rooms, 
namely,  a  room  for  the  ^mixing  and  kneading  of  the 
dough  and  making  of  the  loafs;  a  room  for  the  bake 
ovens ;  a  store  room  for  the  flour  and  another  for  the 
finished  products. 

The  plumbing  work  is  generally  very  simple  in 
character.  A  sink  for  drawing  water  is  required,  also 
troughs  of  wood,  or  better  of  slate,  for  the  preparation 
of  the  dough.  In  a  few  hospitals  dough-kneading 
machines  driven  by  steam-power  are  in  use.  The 
bake-ovens  are  heated  either  with  coal,  gas,  or  hot 
water. 


HOSPITAL   SANITATION.  49 

17.  Refrigerator  Room  and  Ice  House. — Large   hos- 
pitals  require   cold-storage   rooms   for  meat    and   fish, 
for  butter,    and.  other  supplies.     These   should  be   ar- 
ranged in  every  way  sanitary,  and  in  view  of  the  fact 
that    meat    readily    becomes    tainted    and    that    milk 
absorbs  impurities,   the  greatest  care  should  be  exer- 
cised   in    the    drainage    arrangements    of    refrigerating 
rooms.     No    direct    connection    with    any    foul    water 
sewer  should  be  tolerated. 

Hospitals  require  large  quantities  of  ice  for  various 
purposes,  and  where  no  refrigerating  plant  is  installed, 
an  ice  house  will  be  a  desirable  feature.  Much  atten- 
tion should  be  given  to  the  source  of  the  ice  supply 
to  avoid  the  dangers  of  impure  ice.  The  drainage  of 
the  ice  house  requires  great  care,  and  should  any  sewers 
necessarily  pass  near  by,  it  will  be  necessary  to  take 
special  precautions  to  avoid  any  leakage  of  sewage 
towards  the  ice  house. 

1 8.  The   Hospital    Laundry. — The  laundry  is  a  very 
important  adjunct  of  the  hospital.     A  location  for  the 
same  separated  from  the  wards  and  the  main  building 
is  always  desirable  to  avoid  the  annoyance  from  steam 
vapors  permeating  the  building.     As  a  rule,  it  is  de- 
sirable  to   place   the   laundry   in   a   separate   building. 
This   should   be   a   roomy   structure,    providing   ample 
space  for  the  laundry  operations.     The  building  usually 
requires  several  subdivisions.     There  should  be  a  room 
for  the  soiled  clothes,   a  large  wash-house,   a  drying- 
room,   an   ironing-room,    and   a   room   for   the   storage 
and  assortment  of  the  clean  linen,  in  which  room  sew- 
ing and  mending  may  also  be  done.     Sometimes  a  sepa- 


50  SANITATION   OF  PUBLIC   BUILDINGS. 

rate  small  laundry  is  provided  for  the  washing  of  the 
officer's  linen.  A  disinfecting  and  fumigating  room 
for  the  soiled  linen  and '  bedding  of  infectious  disease 
patients  should  be  a  part  of  every  complete  hospital 
laundry. 

A  laundry  requires  a  good  deal  of  plumbing,  and 
also  laundry  machinery,  for  which  steam  and  water 
supplies  and  wastes  must  be  arranged.  The  wash- 
room proper  contains  the  wash-tubs,  the  number  of 
these  depending  upon  the  population  of  the  hospital. 
Wash-tubs,  which  formerly  were  of  wood,  are  now 
obtainable  at  reasonable  prices  in  white  and  yellow 
stoneware  with  roll-rims,  thus  doing  away  with  wooden 
frames  or  tops  which  are  an  abomination  and  never 
last  beyond  a  few  months.  The  tubs  should  be  prop- 
erly trapped  and  connected  with  separate  Y-branches 
to  the  line  of  the  drain-pipe.  Hot  and  cold  water- 
pipes  should  be  provided  of  ample  size  to  supply  all 
the  faucets  of  a  row  of  tubs  if  running  simultaneously. 
Washing-machines  are  not  usually  connected  with  the 
drains,  but  discharge  over  open  concrete  gutters,  with 
trapped  outlets  to  the  drainage  system.  Sometimes 
the  room  contains  rinsing  machines,  steam-boiling 
kettles,  soap  kettles,  etc.  Centrifugal  dryers  or 
wringers  are  provided,  which  must  have  trapped  floor 
connections  to  remove  the  drippings  from  the  wash. 

The  remaining  outfit  of  a  steam  laundry  consists  of 
drying-rooms  with  horses,  steam  mangles,  and  special 
ironing  machines  for  shirts,  collars,  and  cuffs,  starch 
kettles,  an  engine  to  drive  the  shafting  for  all  machinery, 
and  stoves  for  heating  the  irons,  all  of  which  require 


HOSPITAL   SANITATION.  51 

steam  and  gas  connections.  A  laundry  is  often  the 
place  where  a  fire  starts  in  a  hospital,  and  it  may  be 
wise  to  guard  further  against  this  calamity  by  providing 
not  only  fire  stand-pipes  with  fire-valves  and  fire-hose, 
but  also  a  complete  automatic  sprinkler  system,  requir- 
ing roof  tanks,  piping,  valves,  and  sprinkler  heads. 

19.  The     Boiler-house. — The     hospital     boiler-house, 
containing    the    steam-heating    and    power-boilers,    the 
coal    vaults,    the    boiler-feed,    house,    and    fire    pumps, 
sometimes   a   suction   tank,   the   dynamos   and   engines 
and  switchboard,  will  require  a  good  deal  of  plumbing 
work,   in  connection  with  the   supply-   and   discharge- 
piping  and  necessary  cross-connections  of  the  pumps. 
Sometimes   the   general   hot-water   tank   for   the   insti- 
tution is   placed   in   this  building.     There   should   also 
be    a   small   engineer's   toilet-room,    with   water-closet, 
wash-basin  and  sink,  and  a  spray-bath  for  the  firemen. 

20.  The     Drug    Store    and   Dispensary. — Every   hos- 
pital requires  a  drug  store,  and  often  it  has  a  public 
dispensary.     This  department  should  be  fitted  up  with 
one  or  more  sinks  for  washing  of  bottles  and  for  drawing 
water;    sometimes  a  separate  wash-basin  is  fitted  up. 
There   may    also   be    a   pressure-filter   to    obtain    pure 
water.     Adjoining  the  waiting-room  of  the  dispensary 
there   should   be   separate   public   toilet-rooms  for  men 
and  women. 

21.  Water-closets     for     Employees. — For    the    large 
number  of  employees,  constituting  the  male  and  female 
help  in  the  working  departments  of  a  hospital,  suitable 
toilet-room  accommodations  must  be  provided.      These 
do  not  require  a  special  description,  but  I  may  here 


52  SANITATION   OF  PUBLIC  BUILDINGS. 

remark  with  regard  to  the  plumbing  of  servants'  water- 
closets  and  also  the  general  plumbing  in  the  kitchen, 
scullery,  pantry,  bakery,  laundry,  and  boiler-house, 
that  there  seems  to  be  a  general  and  very  erroneous 
impression  prevailing  that  anything  in  the  way  of 
plumbing  will  answer  the  purpose,  provided  that  there 
is  a  water  supply  and  a  waste  connection,  and  that 
the  separate  trapping  of  fixtures  would  here  be  an  ultra- 
refinement  and  vent-pipes  to  the  roof  an  unnecessary 
expense.  I  have  found  in  my  examinations  of  public 
institutions  a  great  deal  of  defective  and  slovenly 
plumbing  work  in  the  working  department  of  hos- 
pitals, much  lack  of  cleanliness,  and  a  great  indiffer- 
ence on  the  part  of  those  in  charge  of  the  same. 

These  departments  of  a  hospital  require  the  same 
correctness  in  planning,  careful  execution  of  the  work, 
and  good  substantial  fixtures  as  the  bath-rooms  and 
toilet-rooms  for  the  patients  and  officers.  The  rooms 
where  the  food  supply  is  prepared  should  be  free  from 
any  possible  sewer  air  contamination,  not  only  to 
guard  against  the  food  becoming  contaminated,  but 
also  to  protect  the  health  of  the  kitchen  and  laundry 
employees. 

22.  The  Mortuary  or  Deadhouse. — Large  hospitals 
always  have  a  small  separate  deadhouse,  where  patients 
who  died  are  kept  pending  burial  or  a  post-mortem 
examination.  The  principal  room  should  be  finished 
entirely  with  non-absorbent  materials,  so  that  it  may 
be  washed  from  time  to  time  by  means  of  a  hose.  The 
floor  should  be  tiled  and  provided  with  floor  drains 
and  sewer  connection.  There  should  be  a  porcelain 


HOSPITAL   SANITATION.  53 

roll-rim  sink  with  hot  and  cold  water.  For  anatomical 
dissecting  there  should  be  a  slate,  marble  or  glass  slab 
or  a  post-mortem  table  arranged  to  revolve,  with  a 
waste  connection  and  with  overhead  supplies,  to  which 
rubber  hose  may  be  attached. 

23.  The   Disinfecting  Station. — Modern  hospitals  are 
also  provided  with  a  disinfecting  station  which  is  gen- 
erally in  a  separate  and  detached  building.     This  may 
serve   not   only   the   purpose   of   disinfecting   the   linen 
and   clothes   of   infected   patients   before   they   are   re- 
ceived in  the  hospital,  but  also  for  the  disinfection  of 
soiled  articles  before  washing,   of  bed  mattresses  and 
other  bedroom  furniture  by  means  of  either  steam  or 
formaldehyde.     Generally,    the    disinfecting    station    is 
provided   with   a  bath-room   having   a   spray-bath   for 
the  use  of  the  attendants.     This  building  is  an  impor- 
tant adjunct  of  every  hospital  for  infectious  diseases. 
Usually   the    disinfecting   room   is   divided   by  a   solid 
partition  into  two  parts,   in  one  of  which  the  things 
to  be   disinfected   are   placed   in   the   apparatus,   while 
they  are  taken  out  at  the  opposite  end  in  the  adjoining 
room.     Every   hospital   should  have   a   portable   disin- 
fecting apparatus  for  safely  generating  large  volumes 
of  formaldehyde  gas    which  may  be  used  in  the  disin- 
fection of  the  hospital  wards,  or  for  ward  utensils  and 
bedding,  or  for  disinfecting  excreta  and  other  wastes. 

24.  Garbage    Disposal.— Large  hospitals  should  have 
a  garbage  furnace  or  cremator  for  the  destruction,  by 
fire,  ot  the  garbage  and  solid  waste  matters,  of  the  in- 
fected surgical  bandages,   dressings,   and  of  the  other 
numerous    refuse    of    the    institution.     This    garbage 


54  SANITATION   OF  PUBLIC   BUILDINGS. 

cremator  may  advantageously  be  erected  in  the  boiler- 
house  or  immediately  adjoining  the  same. 

25.  Sewage   Disinfection. — In  infectious  disease  hos- 
pitals,  provision  should  be   made   for  the   disinfection 
of  the  excreta  of  typhoid  fever  and  cholera  patients. 
This  is   also   advisable  in  the   case  of  the   sputum   of 
patients  suffering  with  phthisis.     The  disinfection  may 
be   accomplished   by   means   of   steam   under   pressure 
with  the  addition  of  chemicals,  such  as  permanganate 
of   potash.     In   some   of   the   European   hospitals,    the 
water-closet  fixtures  for  infectious  patients  are  arranged 
with  steam  connection  so  that  an  immediate  disinfec- 
tion of  the  excreta  may  be  carried  out  in  these  fixtures. 
All   such   arrangements   require   special  treatment,  but 
a  detailed  description  would  lead  us  too  far. 

26.  Hot-water   Supply. — Hot   water  is  required  in  a 
hospital  in  great  abundance.     As  a  rule  this  is  obtained 
from  closed  round  steel  or  boiler  iron  tanks,  in  which 
a  brass  or  copper  steam  coil  is  placed,   which   serves 
to  heat  the  water.     It  is  desirable  to  maintain  an  even 
temperature  of  the  tank  water,  and  this  may  be  accom- 
plished by  the  use  of  the  thermostats  or  temperature 
regulators.     A  somewhat  different  hot- water  generating 
device   is  the  Tobey   heater,   which  has  been  used   to 
some  extent  in  large  hospitals,  and  which  consists  of  a 
large   horizontal   heater,    with   automatic   steam-valve, 
regulated   and  operated  by   an  expansion  rod  located 
in  the  upper  part  of  the  heater.     This  device  prevents 
the  overheating  of  the  water  and  thus  tends  to  economize 
in  fuel.     It  also  enables  the  control  of  the  temperature 
of  the  hot  water,  as  the  valve  may  be  set  to  give  water 


HOSPITAL   SANITATION.  55 

at  any  desired  temperature,  and  thus  avoids  to  a  great 
extent  the  danger  of  scalding  which  is  ever-present 
where  the  hot  water  may  become  overheated. 

It  is  desirable  in  a  large  building  to  furnish  hot 
water  at  various  degrees  of  heat,  therefore  several 
heaters  should  be  provided,  one  intended  to  furnish 
water  for  the  baths  and  lavatories,  in  which  the  tem- 
perature need  not  exceed  130  degrees  F.,  the  other 
to  furnish  hot  water  for  dish-washing  and  kitchen  pur- 
poses, which  may  be  required  at  a  temperature  of  about 
180  degrees  F.  For  the  spray-baths,  the  "Gegenstrom" 
apparatus  has  proven  very  successful,  and  not  the 
least  advantage  of  the  same  is  the  fact  that  it  renders 
special  hot-water  tanks  entirely  unnecessary,  as  it 
heats  water  by  steam  directly  and  almost  instanta- 
neously. There  are  other  instantaneous  water  heaters, 
using  gas  as  fuel,  which  in  some  places  in  a  hospital 
may  prove  efficient  and  serviceable. 

27.  Water  Supply  for  Fire  Protection  Purposes. — No 
hospital  building  should  be  left  without  fire  protection 
and  fire-extinguishing  appliances.  There  should  be 
lines  of  fire  stand-pipes  in  all  buildings,  with  fire- valves 
and  fire-hose  on  every  floor.  These  may  be  supplied 
either  from  the  elevated  roof  tanks,  or  from  a  special 
fire-pump  in  the  boiler-house.  A  number  of  fire-pails 
should  also  be  provided  and  set  on  shelves  along  the 
corridors  and  in  unimportant  rooms.  A  number  of 
non-freezing  fire-hydrants  should  be  placed  in  the  hos- 
pital grounds,  and  the  necessary  lengths  of  rubber-lined 
fire  hose  should  be  kept  in  readiness  in  the  engineer's 
department,  or  better  in  a  special  fire-engine  house, 


56  SANITATION   OF   PUBLIC   BUILDINGS. 

with  hose-tower  in  which  the  hose  after  practice  fire- 
drills  may  be  hung  up  vertically  to  dry.* 

Conclusion. — In  a  well-managed  hospital  the  most 
thorough  cleanliness  and  a  pure  condition  of  the  air 
indoors  are  secured  by  a  constant  vigilance  against  all 
manner  of  dirt.  Half  the  battle  is  won  where  the 
buildings  have  a  good  system  of  sewerage  and  plumb- 
ing. These  will  not  only  prevent  a  contamination  of 
the  atmosphere  in  the  toilet-rooms,  lavatories,  and 
sick  wards  by  emanations  from  the  sewer- pipes  and 
plumbing  fixtures,  but  they  will  also  render  it  impos- 
sible for  the  soil  upon  which  the  building  stands  to 
become  polluted  and  give  off  gases  injurious  to  health 
and  fatal  to  disease.  They  will,  finally,  assist  in  the 
maintenance  of  absolute  cleanliness  of  the  walls  and 
floors,  of  personal  cleanliness,  and  purity  of  the  water 
and  food  supply  of  a  hospital. 

Note. — During  a  recent  vacation  spent  in  traveling  in 
Europe,  the  .author  visited  a  large  number  of  modern 
hospitals,  and  found  these  to  compare  most  favorably 
with  similar  buildings  in  this  country.  Among  the 
more  important  ones  inspected  I  mention  the  Ham- 
burg-Eppendorf  General  Hospital,  the  Heil-Anstalt  Bee- 
litz  near  Berlin,  the  Hospital  for  Insane  at  Doesen  near 
Leipsic,  the  Johannstadt  Hospital  in  Dresden,  the  new 
Municipal  Hospital  of  Nuremberg,  and  finally,  the 
Elizabeth  Hospital  of  Aix-la-Chapelle.  Of  many  of 
these  the  author  was  fortunate  enough  to  secure  plans 
and  interior  views.  To  those  in  search  of  the  latest 

*  See  Appendix  A. 


HOSPITAL   SANITATION.  57 

practical  information  regarding  hospital  planning  and 
equipment,  a  visit  to  all  of  them  is  recommended,  and 
especially  to  the  latest  examples  of  hospital  construc- 
tion at  Beelitz  near  Berlin,  and  at  Nuremberg.  The  new 
bath-house  of  the  Elizabeth  Hospital  at  Aix-la-Chapelle, 
while  not  very  large,  is  a  model  particularly  worth  seeing. 

The  tendency  in  Europe  has  for  some  time  been,  and 
seems  to  be  at  present,  to  avoid  absolutely  any  monu- 
mental buildings  of  many  stories,  but  to  erect  instead 
buildings  of  one  or  two  stories  on  the  pavilion  plan, 
which  would  be  capable  of  being  easily  replaced  by 
new  structures  in  case  of  necessity.  The  majority  of 
large  hospitals  are  so  built  and  are  located,  not  in  the 
center  of  the  city,  but  on  the  outskirts  where  the  lesser 
cost  of  land  enables  the  designer  to  spread  out  the 
buildings,  thus  achieving  better  sanitary  results. 

It  was  the  author's  intention  at  first  to  illustrate 
this  chapter,  but  he  refers  those  interested  to  the  ex- 
cellent catalogue  of  Hospital  Fixtures,  issued  by  the 
J.  L.  Mott  Iron  Works,  in  which  are  illustrated  quite 
a  number  of  special  hospital  features  taken  from  the 
author's  practice. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY     OF     HOSPITAL     SANITATION     AND 
ARCHITECTURE.* 

ENGLISH    AND    AMERICAN    BOOKS. 

"Notes  on  Hospitals."     Florence  Nightingale.     London,   1863. 
"Barracks    and    Hospitals."     Circular    No.    4.     War    Depart- 
ment,   Surgeon-General's   Office.  .  Washington,    1870. 

*  Compiled  by  the  author.  The  publications  are  arranged 
according  to  year  of  publication. 


58  SANITATION   OF  PUBLIC   BUILDINGS. 

"Approved  Plans  and  Specifications."  Circular  No.  10.  War 
Dep.,  Surgeon-General's  Office.  Washington,  1877. 

"Hospitals:  Their  History,  Organization  and  Construction." 
Dr.  W.  Gill  Wylie.  New  York,  1877. 

"On  Hospitals  for  the  Insane."     T.  &  Kirkbridge.     Phil.,  1880. 

"Handbook  for  Hospitals."  State  Charities  Aid  Association. 
New  York,  1883. 

"The  Johns  Hopkins  Hospital."  Dr.  J.  S.  Billings.  Baltimore, 
1890. 

"Healthy  Hospitals:"  Observations  on  some  points  connected 
with  hospital  construction.  Sir  Douglas  Galton.  Oxford. 
1893. 

"Hospitals  and  Asylums  of  the  World."  Henry  C.  Burdett. 
London,  1893. 

"  Small  Hospitals :"  Establishments  and  Maintenance.  A.Wor- 
cester. New  York,  1894. 

"  Suggestions  to  Hospital  Visitors."  Billings  and  Kurd.  Phila., 
1895. 

"Handbook  on  Hospitals."     Mouat  and  Snell.     London. 

GERMAN    BOOKS. 

"Die  Einrichtung  von  Krankenhausern."  Dr.  F.  Oppert. 
Leipzig.  1859. 

"Bemerkungen  iiber  Hospitaler."  Florence  Nightingale.  Ber- 
lin. 1866. 

"Studien  iiber  Kranken-Anstalten,  deren  bauliche  Anlage  und 
Ausfuhrung."  J.  Horky.  Berlin.  1866 

"Die  Krankenhauser,  ihre  Einrichtung  und  Verwaltung."  Mit 
Atlas.  C.  H.  Esse.  1868. 

"Studien  iiber  Krankenhauser."     E.  Plage.     Berlin.      1873. 

"Hospitaler  und  Wohlthatigkeitsanstalten."  Dr.  R.  Oppert. 
Leipzig.  1875. 

"  Ueber  Geschichte,  Statistik,  Bau  und  Einrichtung  der  Kranken- 
hauser." Dr.  F.  Sander.  Berlin.  1875. 

"Album  eiserner  Hauser.  Krankenhauser,  Baracken,  Lazar- 
ette,  etc."  C.  J.  Dammers.  Berlin.  J875. 

"Neuere  Krankenhauser:"  Bericht  iiber  die  Pariser  Weltaus- 
stellung  im  Jahre  1878.  F.  Gruber.  Wien.  1879. 

"Die  Krankenhauser."  Anlage,  Bau  und  Einrichtung.  Dr.  F. 
Oppert.  Leipzig.  1882. 


HOSPITAL    SANITATION.  59 

"Das   Krankenhaus   und   die    Kaserne   der   Zukunft."     Mit   8 

Tafeln.     L.  Degen.     Muenchen.      1882. 
"Zerlegbare  Hauser."     (Transportable  Baracken).     J.  Nieden. 

Berlin.      1889. 
"  Mittheilungen    iiber    das    neue    allgemeine    Krankenhaus  zu 

Hamburg-Eppendorf."    Th.  Deneke.    Braunschweig.     1889. 
"Welche  Aufgaben  erfullt  das  Krankenhaus  der  kleinen  Stadte 

und  wie  ist  es  einzurichten  ? "    Dr.  Mencke.    Berlin.     1889. 
"Die    transportable    Lazareth-Baracke."     Coler    und    Werner. 

Berlin.      1890. 
"Das  Kaiser-Franz-Josef  Krankenhaus."     Schopp  und  Sehnal. 

Wien.      1891. 
"Krankenhauser   fur  kleinere   Stadte   und   landliche    Kreise." 

Dr.  J.  v.  Kerschensteiner.     Braunschweig.      1892. 
"Hygienische  Grundsatze  beim  Hospitalbau."     Dr.  Schumburg. 

Berlin.      1892. 
"Grundsatze  fur  den  Bau  von  Krankenhausern."     P.  Boettger. 

Berlin.      1894. 
' '  Drei  Vortrage  auf  dem  Gebiete  der  Hygiene . ' '    Leipzig.     1895. 

Enthaltend :  Leitende  Grundsatze  f iir  die  Anlage  von  Kran- 
kenhausern und  ihre  nothwendigen  Reformen  der  Zukunft, 

Dr.  Rubner. 
"Der  Baracken-Bau  mit  besonderer  Berucksichtigung  der  Wohn- 

und  Epidemic- Baracken."     W.  Lange.     Leipzig.      1895. 
"Handbuch  der  Architektur.     IV,  v.  1.    Krankenhauser."     O. 

Kuhn.     Stuttgart.      1897. 
" Grundriss-Vorbilder   von   Gebauden   aller   Art."     L.    Klasen. 

Berlin.     Abtheilung    IV.     Gebaude   fur   Gesundheitspflege 

und  Heilansalten. 
"Baukunde  des  Architekten."     Band  II;     Berlin. 

REPORTS,    ARTICLES,     AND    PAMPHLETS. 

German. 

"Ueber  Hospitaler  und  Lazarette."  R.  Virchow.  Sammlung 
gemeinverstandlicher  Vortrage.  Hamburg.  1866. 

"Einiges  iiber  den  Modernen  Spitalbau  und  die  Krankenpflege." 
Wiener  Freiwillige  Rettungs-Gesellschaft.  Wien.  1884. 

"Johns  Hopkins  Hospital  in  Baltimore."  Dr.  H.  Albrecht. 
"Centralblatt  f.  allg.  Gesundheitspflege."  X.  Jahrg. 


Of  THE 

UNIVERSITY   1 


60  SANITATION   OF   PUBLIC   BUILDINGS. 

"Grundziige  fiir  Bau,  Einrichtung  und  Verwaltung  von  Abson- 
derungsraumen  und  Sonderkrankenhausern  fur  ansteck- 
ende  Krankheiten."  Dr.  M.  Pistor.  Deutsche  Vierteljahrs- 
schrift  fur  offentliche  Gesundheitspftege.  Viertes  Heft. 
Band  25.  Braunschweig.  1893. 

"  Krankenhaus  und  Krankenpflege."  Prof.  Dr.  Rumpf .  Berlin. 
1896. 

"  Polizei-Verordnung  iiber  Anlage,  Bau  und  Einrichtung  von 
offentlichen  und  Privat-Kranken-Entbindungs  und  Irren- 
Anstalten."  Berlin.  1898. 

English. 

"Hospitals  and  Hospital  Construction."  J.  M.  Woodworth. 
Washington.  1874.  Reprint  from  Report  U.  S.  Marine  Hos- 
pital Service. 

"New  York  Hospital."  Report  of  Building  Committee.  New 
York.  1877. 

"Hospital  Laundries."  State  Charities  Aid  Association.  New 
York.  1880. 

"Hospital  Construction."     American  Architect.     Boston.     1882. 

"Modern  Hospital  Construction."    E.C.Robins.     Builder.    1883. 

"Circular  Hospital  Wards."     H.  S.  Snell.     Am.  Architect.    1885. 

"Hospital  Construction."     Sanitary  Record.      1885. 

'"Additional  Hospitals  for  Insane."  Report  of  Commissioners. 
Indiana.  1886. 

"  General  Description  and  Memoranda  Accompanying  the  Draw- 
ings for  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Hospital."  Submitted  in 
competition  by  J/.  C.  Worthington,  Architect.  Builder  and 
Decorator.  1888. 

"The  Bridgeport  Hospital."  G.  F.  Lewis.  Report  of  State 
Board  of  Health,  Conn. 

"A  Model  Hospital."     K.  Hoffman.     Munsey's  Mag. 

"Water  Supply,  Drainage  and  Sewage  Disposal  for  Lunatic 
Asylums."  Rogers  Field.  London.  1892. 

"The  Rain  Bath.  "A  Novel  Form  of  Bath  and  New  Method  of 
Bathing  Insane  Patients.  Wm.  P.  Gerhard.  Am.  Jour, 
of  Insanity.  1895. 

"Plans  of  St.  Luke's  Hospital."  Architecture  and  Building. 
1896- 


HOSPITAL   SANITATION.  61 

"Fever  Hospitals."     T.  W.  Aldwinckle.     Architecture  and  Build- 
ing.    1896. 
"A  Study  of  a   Hospital  Plan."     H.   Hun.     Albany  Medical 

Annals.     1897. 
"The  Construction  of  Hospitals."     W.  Henman.     Architecture 

and  Building .      1898. 
"Hospital  Construction  and  Administration."     Albany  Medical 

Annals.     (Special  Hospital  Number.)     February,  1898. 
"The  Plumbing,    Drainage  and   Water  Supply  of   Hospitals." 

Wm.  Paul  Gerhard.     Albany,   1898. 
"The  Second  Hospital  for  the  Insane  of  the  State  of  Maryland." 

G.  Rohe.     Am.  Jour,  of  Insanity.     1898. 
"A  Modern  Madhouse."     An  Inspection  Report.     A.  L.  Gihon. 

Reprinted  from  the  Phil.  Med.  Jour.      1898. 
"Description  of  Building  and  Floor  Plans.     The  Society  of  the 

Lying-in  Hospital  of  the  City  of  New  York." 
"Axioms  and  Principles  of  Modern  Hospital  Construction."     M. 

Junghaendel.     Am.  Architect.      1900. 
"Hospital   Sanitation."     By    Wm.    Paul   Gerhard,    Illustrated 

Amer.  Architect.     April  226.  and  29,  1905. 


THEATRE    SANITATION 


n 

THEATRE   SANITATION* 

i.  Unsanitary  Conditions  in  Theatres. — Arrangements 
for  the  health  and  comfort  of  theatre-goers,  of  actors 
and  of  stage  employees  are  seldom  considered,  except 
in  rare  instances  of  a  few  recent  metropolitan  theatres. 
Leaving  these  out  of  consideration,  it  is  no  exaggera- 
tion to  state  that  most  theatres  are  ill-ventilated  and 
badly  drained,  that  the  arrangement  of  their  toilet- 

*  The  substance  of  the  above  chapter  was  presented  by  the 
author  in  a  paper,  read  at  the  annual  meeting  of  the  American 
Public  Health  Association  at  Ottawa,  Canada,  September  27, 
1893.  The  paper  was  introduced  with  the  following  words' 

"The  Honorable  President  of  our  Association  has  invited  me 
to  prepare  a  paper  for  its  annual  meeting,  and  seeing  that  the 
Executive  Committee  has  placed  among  the  topics  for  con- 
sideration '  Sanitation  with  special  reference  to  Drainage, 
Plumbing,  and  Ventilation  of  Public  Buildings,'  I  have  selected 
as  my  subject  'The  Hygiene  of  Theatres,'  not  so  much  with 
a  view  of  presenting  any  new  iacts  or  startling  theories,  as 
with  a  view  of  eliciting  discussion  upon  a  question  of  sani- 
tation which  has  been  hitherto  somewhat  neglected. 

"One  reason  for  this  apparent  neglect  is  undoubtedly  the 
fact  that,  though  large  numbers  of  persons  are  congregated  in 
theatres,  concert  halls,  and  other  places  of  amusement  the 
duration  of  stay  in  such  buildings  is  a  brief  one,  never  exceed- 
ing three  or  four  hours  at  the  most,  whereas  in  other  public 
buildings,  such  as  schools,  court-houses,  assembly  halls,  and 
lecture  halls,  occupancy  generally  extends  during  the  whole 
or  a  large  part  of  each  day.  I  venture  to  assert,  however,  that 

65 


66  SANITATION   OF  PUBLIC  BUILDINGS. 

rooms  is  unsanitary  and  ill-planned,  that  the  plumbing 
is  defective,  the  water-closet  accommodation  inad- 
equate, the  dressing-rooms  overcrowded  and  without 
any  provision  for  comfort  and  fresh  air,  and  that  the 
general  state  of  cleanliness  of  the  building  is  far  from 
being  satisfactory. 

It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  there  are  vast  numbers 
of  persons  who,  while  they  would  thoroughly  enjoy  a 
good  play,  are  restrained  from  visiting  such  places  of 
amusement,  for  the  very  good  reason  that  they  fear 
the  exposure  to  the  stifling,  noxious,  overheated  atmo- 
sphere of  the  buildings,  and  who  are  sure,  if  they  do 
go,  to  awake  the  next  morning  with  a  severe  headache 
or  with  a  cold  or  sore  throat,  contracted  through  expo- 
sure to  draughts.  If  this  is  true  of  the  theatre-goers, 


going  to  see  a  play  would  be  a  far  greater  pleasure,  if  theatres 
were  adequately  ventilated  and  otherwise  kept  in  a  sanitary 
condition. 

"My  intention  originally  was  to  base  the  statements  of  this 
paper  upon  a  careful  detailed  personal  examination  of  exist- 
ing theatre  buildings,  but  pressure  of  business  and  the  limited 
time  afforded  me  for  the  preparation  of  this  paper  prevented 
me  from  making  such  special  studies  and  inspections,  and  I 
am  therefore  obliged  to  draw  largely  from  casual  experience 
arid  observations  taken  while  visiting  both  parts  (i.e.,  before 
and  behind  the  curtain)  of  a  number  of  theatres. 

"Doubtless,  many  of  the  points  brought  up  in  my  paper,  con- 
tain nothing  new  to  the  learned  members  of  this  association. 
I  hope,  however,  that  the  paper  will  be  the  means  of  bringing 
about  a  free  discussion,  which  will  in  the  end  surely  result  in 
benefit  to  the  public,  for  there  are  hundreds  of  theatres  and 
amusement  halls  in  our  cities  and  towns,  the  sanitary  ar- 
rangements of  which  are  utterly  bad  and  require  a  thorough  re- 
modeling." 


THEATRE   SANITATION.  67 

how  much  more  must  the  performers  and  stage  hands 
suffer,  who  are  obliged  to  remain  in  the  building,  not 
only  during  the  performance  but  also  for  rehearsals, 
and  for  the  countless  preparations  incidental  to  the 
staging  of  a  new  play.  The  general  state  of  health  of 
performers  must  in  consequence  suffer  and  they  are 
often  subject  to  throat  troubles  or  other  ailments. 

The  arrangement  of  the  stage  dressing-rooms  is  at 
times  frightful  beyond  description.  Often  they  are 
located  below  the  level  of  the  stage,  in  narrow  dark 
underground  passages,  without  outside  window  or  any 
other  means  of  ventilation.  Their  size  is  reduced  to  a 
minimum  and  they  are  generally  overcrowded.  In 
many  instances,  the  theatre  architect  has  done  his  best 
to  provide  suitable  dressing-rooms  for  a  small  com- 
pany, and  the  place  is  subsequently  changed  to  one 
devoted  to  comic  opera  or  spectacular  entertainments, 
requiring  a  larger  number  of  performers.  To  accom- 
modate these,  the  dressing-rooms  are  partitioned  off, 
or  dark  underground  places  are  selected  for  additional 
rooms.  Then  again,  we  find  the  water-closet  accom- 
modations, both  for  the  public  and  for  the  actors 
and  theatre  employees,  insufficient  and  always  more 
or  less  antiquated,  worn  out,  and  defective,  or  lacking 
a  sufficient  water  supply  and  flush.  In  many  places 
their  location  and  state  of  untidiness  suggest  the  great- 
est disregard  for  decency  and  moral  feeling. 

One  of  the  usual  defects  has  reference  to  the  site  or 
location  of  a  theatre,  for  the  site  frequently  decides 
the  location  of  the  places  from  where,  the  fresh  air  for 
the  audience  is  taken.  Many  of  the  older  theatres 


68  SANITATION   OF  PUBLIC   BUILDINGS. 

are  located  in  the  middle  of  a  city  block,  with  only  one 
side  fronting  on  the  street.  At  the  back  or  side  of  the 
building  there  is  in  some  cases  a  small,  dark,  ill-aired 
court,  obstructed  by  rubbish  and  accumulation  of 
disused  stage  scenery,  and  which  is  frequently  used 
as  the  only  available  urinal  accommodation  for  the 
stage  hands.  How  can  it  be  possible  to  provide  suit- 
able inlets  for  fresh  air  for  the  audience  in  such  courts 
where  the  air  must  be  of  necessity  foul?  Quite  often, 
odors  from  neighboring  restaurant  kitchens  or  from 
stables  extend  to  this  court,  and  rush  up  to  the  stage 
whenever  a  door  is  opened.  The  isolation  of  the  build- 
ing, at  least  on  three  sides,  is  therefore  very  desirable 
not  only  for  safety's  sake,  but  to  provide  efficient  ven- 
tilation. 

In  the  understage  we  often  find  other  sources  for  bad 
odors,  such  as  defective  or  leaky  sewer-pipes,  untrapped 
floor  cesspools  and  abominable  pan-closets.  The  con- 
taminated air  will  naturally  rise  to  the  stage,  and 
rush  into  the  auditorium  whenever  the  curtain  rises, 
or  when  the  orchestra  exit  door  to  the  understage  is 
opened  for  a  moment.  I  know  of  at  least  one  theatre 
in  Greater  New  York  where  each  time  the  curtain  rises 
a  strong  whiff  of  sewer  air  greets  the  audience. 

The  plan  of  a  theatre  building  often  is,  of  necessity, 
such  that  the  auditorium  has  few,  if  any,  windows  to 
the  outer  air,  which  could  be  used  for  air-flushing  at 
times  when  the  house  is  not  occupied.  As  a  result  of 
the  shortcomings  just  mentioned,  theatre  audiences 
are  obliged  to  breathe  fur  several  hours  in  succession, 
a  noxious  compound  of  the  products  of  combustion 


THEATRE   SANITATION.  69 

due  to  gas  illumination,  and  of  the  respiration  and 
perspiration  of  hundreds  of  people,  some  of  them 
doubtless  in  need  of  a  thorough  washing,  while  many 
are  clothed  in  ill-smelling  and  dirty  underclothes. 

During  a  performance  the  atmosphere  thus  becomes 
stuffy  and  oppressive  beyond  description.  It  is  stated 
upon  good  authority  that  chemical  analyses  show  the 
air  in  the  dress  circle  and  gallery  of  many  a  theatre 
to  be  in  the  evening  more  foul  than  the  air  of  street 
sewers.  (See  Appendix  B.) 

Behind  the  curtain,  the  worst  forms  of  unsanitary 
conditions  often  exist.  The  stage  floor  is  full  of  dust, 
which  is  but  rarely  thoroughly  swept,  and  becomes 
stirred  up  by  the  constant  shifting  of  scenery,  by  the 
rolling  up  of  stage  carpets,  by  the  moving  of  furniture 
and  set  pieces,  by  the  dancing,  etc.  In  the  auditorium 
the  carpets,  upholstery  of  the  seats,  and  the  box  decor- 
ations and  hangings  become  saturated  with  the  vile 
odors,  possibly  causing  sore  throats  to  persons  in  the 
audience  who  are  susceptible  to  such  ailments.  Plush 
seats  and  floor  carpets  in  public  places  are  recognized 
harbingers  of  dust  and  disease  germs,  such  as  those  of 
tuberculosis. 

The  wonder  is  that  the  public  will  not  abstain  from 
going  to  those  theatres,  the  sanitary  conditions  of 
which  are  notoriously  and  grossly  bad.  If  they  were 
to  do  this,  it  would  set  the  managers  thinking,  and 
reforms  in  the  matter  of  theatre  sanitation  would  soon 
be  begun,  in  the  same  way  as  improvements  in  the 
safety  of  such  places  of  amusement  were,  to  some  ex- 
tent, impelled  by  the  fact  that  after  a  theatre  fire  dis- 


70  SANITATION   OF  PUBLIC   BUILDINGS. 

aster,  the  public  kept  away  from  buildings  known  to 
be  unsafe  or  even  veritable  death-traps.* 

Having  briefly  alluded  to  some  of  the  usual  defects, 
I  will  now  speak  of  the  hygienic  requirements  of  theatres 
and  suggest  some  remedies  which  would  render  such 
buildings  sanitary  and  comfortable  and  would  enable 
theatre-goers  to  derive  a  few  hours  of  real  enjoyment 
in  which  to  thoroughly  appreciate  the  play. 

I  am  convinced  of  the  fact  that  sanitary  reforms 
will  in  the  future  be  accomplished  if  the  public  will 
only  demand  them. 

2.  Drainage  and  Sewerage. — In  arranging  for  the 
drainage  and  sewerage  of  a  theatre  building  the  general 
rules  as  to  size,  and  material  for  the  sewer  lines,  the 
grade  to  be  given,  the  manner  of  making  proper  pipe 
joints,  etc.,  should  be  followed.  As  a  rule,  the  area 
covered  by  a  theatre  building  is  so  large  as  to  require 
at  least  two  six -inch  sewer  connections.  Proper  atten- 
tion should  be  paid  to  proportioning  the  sizes  of  the 
rain-water  conductors  which  drain  the  roof  surfaces 
over  the  stage  and  the  auditorium,  because  these  are 
at  times  very  large. 

All  areas  and  courts  should  be  properly  paved,  pitched, 
graded,  and  drained.  A  difficulty  in  the  way  of  drain- 
age often  arises  from  the  considerable  depth  to  which 
that  portion  of  the  stage  house,  known  as  the  "under 
stage,"  has  to  be  carried.  Owing  to  the  requirements 
of  stage  traps  and  stage  machinery,  the  level  of  the 

*  See  the  Author's  work,  "Theatres,  their  Safety  from  Fire 
and  Panic,  their  Comfort  and  Healthfulness."  Published  by 
Bates  and  Guild  Co.,  Boston,  Mass. 


THEATRE   SANITATION.  71 

understage  is  frequently  located  below  the  level  of 
the  sewer  in  the  street.  Any  subsoil  water  accumulating 
in  the  sump,  must  be  removed  by  lifting  it  either  by 
means  of  automatic  cellar  drainers,  worked  by  water 
pressure,  or  by  means  of  steam  ejectors,  or  finally  by 
electric  centrifugal  pumps.  Often  the  entire  sub-cel- 
lar is  constructed  perfectly  water-tight,  like  the  cellar 
of  a  warehouse  situated  below  tide  or  subsoil  water 
level.  This  not  only  keeps  out  the  subsoil  water  and 
prevents  dampness,  which  is  undesirable  for  the  stage 
house,  as  it  would  tend  to  ruin  the  stage  flooring,  the 
stage  property,  and  the  actors'  and  supers'  costumes, 
but  it  also  prevents  ground  air  from  rising  upwards 
and  thus  tends  to  keep  the  air  of  the  stage  pure  and 
wholesome. 

3.  Plumbing. — I  do  not  exaggerate  when  I  state  that 
there  are  but  very  few  theatres  which  have  the  plumb- 
ing properly  arranged.  In  recently  built  theatres,  in 
those  cities  where  plumbing  rules  and  regulations  are 
enforced,  we  find,  of  course,  soil-pipes  and  waste  lines 
carried  full  size  up  to  the  roof,  and  fixtures  separately 
trapped.  Generally,  however,  the  plumbing  is  of  the 
plainest  kind,  without  any  attempt  at  elaboration. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  plumbing  of  theatres  and  "  opera 
houses"  in  smaller  towns  and  villages  exhibits  often 
the  worst  defects  imaginable.  The  entire  work  is  too 
often  carried  out  in  a  slip-shod  manner,  the  water- 
closets  of  dressing-rooms  being  generally  set  on  "dead 
ends"  of  drain  lines,  having  no  soil-pipe  extension 
to  the  roof  and  often  being  a  part  of  the  dressing-room, 
partitioned  off  by  only  thin  board  partitions.  Basins 


72  SANITATION   OF   PUBLIC   BUILDINGS. 

and  sinks  are  sometimes  in  direct  connection  with  the 
sewer,  traps  being  considered  a  superfluous  and  alto- 
gether too  expensive  refinement  for  such  buildings.  In 
dark  corners  disused  closets  or  sinks  are  at  times  dis- 
covered. Drains  are  laid  in  a  hap-hazard  manner, 
often  sloping  the  wrong  way.  Tile  drains  and  cement 
pipes  are  used  where  extra  heavy  cast-iron  sewer-pipes 
should  be  run;  all  manner  of  faulty  joints  are  discovered 
and  in  many  cases  the  sewage  drips  on  to  the  floor 
and  becomes  a  contributory  cause  of  the  annoying 
odors  which  so  often  greet  the  audience  when  the  cur- 
tain rises.  Pan  closets  and  ill-flushed  hopper-closets 
are  still  made  use  of,  and  the  apartments  in  which 
they  are  arranged  are  found  to  be  in  an  indescribably 
filthy  condition.  This  being  the  case,  it  is  not  sur- 
prising that  we  should  find,  even  in  some  of  our  larger 
cities,  an  advertisement  printed  on  the  theatre  pro- 
grammes, stating  that  "the  'Ne  plus  Ultra'  or  other 
well-known  disinfectant  is  used  in  this  theatre." 

It  goes  without  saying  that  the  plumbing  of  theatres 
should  be  planned  and  arranged  with  the  same  care 
as  that  of  other  public  buildings.  There  should  be 
toilet-rooms  for  each  tier  in  the  auditorium,  entirely 
separate  retiring-rooms  being  provided  for  men  and 
women.  Sufficient  accommodations  should  be  pro- 
vided in  that  part  of  the  stage  house  which  contains 
the  dressing-rooms,  for  actors  and  actresses.  In  addi- 
tion there  should  be  in  the  basement  well  arranged  and 
ven1»iated  toilet-rooms  for  the  stage  hands,  employees, 
and  the  supers.  The  office  of  the  theatre  manager 
often  has  a  separate  toilet-room,  and  there  is,  in  larger 


THEATRE   SANITATION.  73 

houses,  a  toilet-room  adjoining  the  star's  dressing-room. 
Near  the  engine-  and  pump-room  a  toilet-room  for  the 
engineer  and  his  help  should  be  provided,  and  if  there 
is  in  the  front  part  of  the  house  a  smoking-room  or  a 
refreshment  room,  a  men's  toilet-room  is  arranged 
with  urinals  and  lavatories. 

Handsome  nickel-plated  work  and  fittings  do  not 
seem  called  for  in  a  theatre,  except  possibly  in  the 
toilet-rooms  of  the  parquet  and  dress  circle,  or  for  the 
occupiers  of  the  boxes  in  large  opera  houses,  but  never- 
theless the  entire  arrangement  should  be  in  every  way 
sanitary  and  the  best  workmanship  is  required.  Wood- 
work should  be  avoided  for  well-known  reasons.  The 
floors  and  walls  should  be  rendered  water-proof  and 
non-absorbent,  partitions  between  water-closets  and 
urinal  stalls  should  consist  of  marble,  slate,  or  soap- 
stone.  Every  toilet-room  should  have  a  window  to 
the  outer  air,  and  in  addition  artificial  ventilation  by 
exhaust  flues  should  be  provided. 

The  closets  should  be  of  glazed  earthen  or  vitreous 
ware  which  will  not  craze.  The  type  known  as  ''wash- 
down"  closet  is  particularly  adapted  for  a  theatre, 
and  the  flush  for  the  same  should  always  come  from  a 
special  copper-lined  flushing  cistern  with  pull  flush. 
In  some  instances  an  automatic  seat  flush  may  be  pre- 
ferable, owing  to  the  careless  manner  in  which  the 
public,  as  well  as  the  stage  hands,  use  such  places. 

For  the  same  reason  it  may  be  preferable  to  have 
porcelain  urinal  bowls  with  self-acting  intermittent 
flush-tanks.  In  theatres  in  which  spectacular  plays 
or  ballets  are  performed,  requiring  a  large  number  of 


74  SANITATION   OF   PUBLIC   BUILDINGS. 

female  supers  and  dancers,  self -flushing  urinettes  or 
pedestal  urinals  for  women  may  with  advantage  be 
provided,  as  the  same  require  for  connection  to  the 
sewer  a  two-inch  waste  line,  whereas  the  water-closet, 
ordinarily  used  by  women  as  a  urinal,  requires  a  four- 
inch  soil-pipe. 

All  stage  dressing-rooms  should  be  fitted  up  with 
small  corner  or  wall  lavatories,  which  must  have  both 
hot-  and  cold-water  faucets.  Each  of  these  should  be 
safely  trapped,  while  the  waste  line  should  be  extended 
to  the  roof  for  ventilation. 

I  have,  on  different  occasions,  pointed  out  the  san- 
itary advantages  of  bathing  facilities  in  general,  and 
of  the  modern  rain-bath  in  particular.  I  trust  I  may 
be  in  accord  with  the  views  of  other  sanitary  advisers 
when  I  suggest  that  there  should  be  in  every  theatre 
one  or  more  douche  or  rain-baths  for  the  use  of  actors 
and  of  the  stage  employees.  A  simple,  inexpensive, 
waterproof  stall  of  Alberene  stone,  or  of  slate,  can  be 
fitted  up  with  a  mixing  valve  for  hot  and  cold  water 
and  with  an  overhead  inclined  douche.  This  does  not 
occupy  much  space  nor  does  it  cost  much  to  operate, 
because  hot  water  is  usually  available.  I  am  certain 
that  it  would  be  well  patronized  after  the  close  of  the 
performance. 

There  should  be  provided  a  few  slop-sinks,  both  near 
the  stage  and  in  the  public  toilet-rooms.  They  are  re- 
quired by  the  women  scrubbing  the  floors,  for  the 
emptying  of  wash-water,  and  to  draw  clean  water. 

The  general  principles  of  sanitary  house  drainage 
apply  with  full  force  to  the  plumbing  of  theatres,  and 


THEATRE   SANITATION.  75 

inasmuch  as  I  have  frequently  discussed  and  described 
the  latter  in  various  books  and  pamphlets,  which  are 
readily  accessible,  and  because  there  is  nothing  really 
new  to  be  said,  the  subject  must  be  dismissed  with 
these  few  words.* 

4.  Water-supply  System. — Theatre  buildings  require  a 
very  ample  and  large  supply  of  water.  There  should  be, 
in  each  theatre,  two  entirely  distinct  systems  of  sup- 
ply, one  of  which  serves  the  purpose  of  fire  protection, 
while  the  other  system  provides  water  for  the  plumbing 
fixtures,  for  flushing,  washing,  and  general  cleanliness. 

The  water  supply  for  fire-extinguishing  purposes  em- 
braces large  suction-tanks  in  the  basement,  roof  tanks 
to  supply  the  automatic  sprinkler  system,  and  a  power- 
ful fire  pump  in  the  engine-room  which  supplies  the  fire 
stand-pipes  and  fire-valves.  This  system  has  been 
elaborately  described  by  the  author  in  his  two  books 
on  "Theatre  Fires  and  Panics,"  and  on  "Theatres, 
Their  Safety  from  Fire  and  Panic,  Their  Comfort  and 
Healthfulness "  to  which  those  interested  are  referred 
for  further  details. 

The  house  supply  should  be  entirely  separate  from 
the  fire-service,  supply.  Where  the  street  pressure  is 
insufficient  to  supply  the  plumbing  fixtures  in  the 
upper  parts  of  the  theatre,  special  house  tanks  should 
be  provided  on  the  roof  over  the  stage.  It  will  readily 
be  seen  that  it  would  be  inadvisable  to  use  the  sprinkler 
tank  for  such  purpose,  as  it  might  be  found  empty  at 


*  See    "House    Drainage    and    Sanitary    Plumbing";     also 
"Sanitary  Engineering  of  Buildings." 


76  SANITATION   OF  PUBLIC  BUILDINGS. 

a  time  when  water  is  wanted  for  fire-extinguishing  pur- 
poses. The  rules  of  the  National  Board  of  Fire  Under- 
writers wisely  specify  that  no  branch  for  sinks  or  for 
drawing  water  for  any  purpose  whatsoever  shall  be 
taken  from  the  sprinkler  tanks. 

Sometimes  house  tanks  placed  above  the  highest 
plumbing  fixtures,  for  instance  on  one  of  the  upper 
flies  or  in  the  rigging  loft,  fill  at  night  by  pressure  from 
the  street  mains;  in  the  majority  of  cases,  however, 
it  is  necessary  to  pump  the  water  to  the  tank,  which 
is  accomplished  by  means  of  direct-acting  steam-pumps, 
or  by  electric  pumps,  or  hot-air  engines,  or  even  wind- 
mills placed  on  the  roof. 

The  house-water  service  comprises  also  a  hot-water 
tank,  because  the  players  and  supers  require,  in  their 
dressing-room,  hot  water  in  abundance  at  the  basins 
and  wash  sinks  to  remove  the  face  paint,  etc.  Hot 
water  is  likewise  required  at  the  slop-sinks  for  the 
use  of  the  scrubwomen. 

Regarding  the  water  service-pipes,  their  material 
and  arrangement,  the  shut-offs  on  the  lines  and  their 
branches,  the  system  does  not  differ  essentially  from 
that  provided  for  other  public  buildings. .  Where  drink- 
ing water  is  provided  on  the  stage,  and  in  the  corridors 
outside  of  the  dressing-rooms,  filters  and  likewise  water- 
coolers  may  be  required.  These  do  not  present  any 
special  feature  worth  mentioning. 

5.  Ventilation.* — I  come  now  to  a  very  important 
requirement  of  theatre  buildings,  namely,  that  of  ven- 

*  See  Appendix  B. 


THEATRE   SANITATION.  77 

tilation.  I  have  already  made  allusion  in  my  intro- 
ductory remarks,  to  the  almost  universal  lack  of  ven- 
tilation in  theatres,  which  causes  the  restlessness, 
languor,  and  drowsiness  of  theatre  audiences,  and  I 
have  pointed  out,  that  a  wise  and  thoughtful  theatre 
manager  will,  in  order  to  insure  a  "full  house,"  use  all 
possible  means  and  care  to  have  his  house  well  ven- 
tilated, for  nothing  contributes  more  to  the  enjoyment 
of  an  audience  than  pure  air.  Indeed,  it  may  be 
asserted  that  in  the  future  those  theatres  will  be  patron- 
ized by  the  public  by  preference,  which  are  as  safe  as 
they  can  be  made  from  the  danger  of  fire  and  panic, 
and  which  also  have  an  efficient  system  of  ventilation. 

It  is  impossible  in  a  short  article  to  discuss  in  detail 
the  various  systems  and  methods  of  theatre  ventilation. 

When  new  theatre  buildings  are  to  be  erected,  archi- 
tects should  always  associate  with  them  an  expert  in 
heating  and  ventilation,  which  two  problems  always 
go  together. 

It  is  necessary  that  every  part  of  a  theatre  should 
be  ventilated,  not  only  the  auditorium,  but  likewise  the 
stage,  the  dressing-rooms,  the  understage,  the  engine- 
room,  the  vault  where  the  gas  meters  stand,  and  finally, 
the  numerous  toilet  and  retiring  rooms  in  both  parts 
of  a  theatre. 

The  amount  of  ventilation  to  be  provided  varies  with, 
and  depends  largely  upon,  such  features  as  the  mode  of 
lighting  employed,  whether  by  candles,  by  oil  lamps, 
by  gas  light  or  by  electric  light;  upon  the  size  of  the 
building  and  in  particular  the  number  of  people  which 
can  be  seated  in  the  entire  auditorium;  and  also  upon 


78  SANITATION   OF  PUBLIC   BUILDINGS. 

the  general  state  of  cleanliness  of  the  building,  to 
which  I  shall  refer  again  hereafter.  The  introduction 
of  electric  lighting  in  theatres  has  without  doubt  con- 
tributed more  than  any  other  agent  to  render  this  vexed 
problem  a  good  deal  easier  to  solve. 

In  designing  the  system  of  ventilation  for  a  theatre 
it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  ventilation  means  not 
merely  the  removal  of  foul  air,  but  simultaneously  the 
introduction  of  a  sufficient  quantity  of  pure  air,  drawn 
from  a  suitable  source  out-of-doors,  suitably  filtered 
and  warmed  in  winter  time,  suitably  sprayed  or  cooled 
with  ice  in  summer  time,  and  introduced  at  all  times 
without  any  unpleasant  air  currents  or  draughts. 

It  is  manifestly  insufficient,  then,  to  merely  provide 
in  the  auditorium  a  few  outlet  flues  and  ventilating 
registers  of  restricted  size  for  the  removal  of  the  foul 
air,  and  to  rely  upon  fresh  air  being  drawn  in  through 
accidental  openings,  or  cracks  or  crevices,  or  from 
the  level  of  the  stage.  Both  inlet  and  outlet  flues  of 
generous  size  should  be  arranged  in  all  cases,  and  care 
should  be  taken  that  they  are  in  no  way  obstructed. 
There  should  be  a  supply  of  fresh  air  to  each  and  every 
person  in  the  audience,  equal  to  at  least  30  cubic  feet 
per  minute,  or  1800  cubic  feet  per  hour.  General  Morin, 
in  his  well-known  "Treatise  on  Ventilation,"  suggests 
a  supply  of  1200-1500  cubic  feet  per  person  per  hour. 
In  a  theatre  of  medium  size,  seating  1000  persons,  the 
former  allowance  means  an  hourly  supply  of  pure  air 
of  1,800,000  cubic  feet.  It  will  be  obvious  that  it  is 
not  quite  an  easy  problem  to  furnish  and  admit  such 
vast  volumes  of  air,  particularly  when  introduced  near 


THEATRE  SANITATION.  79 

the  floor  level,  without  causing  air  currents  which  may 
be  unpleasantly  felt  by  theatre-goers.  To  warm  this 
quantity  of  air  in  winter  time,  when  the  thermometer 
out-doors  stands  near  the  zero  point,  to  about  68  de- 
grees, means  likewise  to  the  theatre  manager  a  good 
deal  of  expense  for  coal.  The  system  must  therefore 
be  carefully  laid  out  and  calculated  to  secure  results 
which  will  be  satisfactory  'to  all  concerned. 

It  is  obvious,  furthermore,  that  to  introduce  and  to 
distribute  evenly  such  large  volumes  in  all  parts  of  the 
audience  hall,  recourse  must  be  had  to  forced  or  me- 
chanical ventilation,  by  means  of  fans  or  blowers.  In 
the  plenum  system  of  ventilation,  draughts  are  avoided 
by  forcing  the  pure  warmeci  air  into  the  auditorium 
under  a  slight  pressure. 

The  fresh  air  may  be  introduced  at  the  top  of  the 
house,  through  the  ceiling,  and  made  to  move  down- 
wards in  a  steady  and  uniform  current,  until  it  reaches 
the  lungs  of  the  spectators,  and  the  exhaled  air  is  then 
removed  at  or  near  the  floor  line.  On  the  other  hand, 
it  is  possible  to  bring  in  the  fresh  air  at  or  near  the 
bottom,  and  to  exhaust  it  at  the  ceiling  of  the  hall. 
We  accordingly  distinguish  between  the  two  systems 
of  downward  and  upward  ventilation.  Much  has  been 
written  about  these  systems,  and  arguments  in  favor 
of  both  may  be  found  in  any  good  text-book  on  Ven- 
tilation. To  a  certain  extent,  both  systems  may  be 
successfully  planned  and  arranged;  the  plan  and  sub- 
division of  the  theatre  building,  the  details  of  con- 
struction, and  local  conditions  will  generally  decide  the 
question  which  one  is  to  be  preferred.  Where  a  theatre 


8o  SANITATION   OF  PUBLIC  BUILDINGS. 

is  lighted  with  electric  lights,  the  downward  system  of 
ventilation  shows  better  results  than  where  gas  lights 
are  used. 

A  good  system  of  ventilation  should  effect  a  com- 
plete change  of  air  three  or  four  times  an  hour,  and 
this  change  of  air  is  required  not  only  in  the  auditorium, 
but  also  for  the  foyers,  the  stage,  the  dressing-rooms, 
and  toilets. 

It  is  stated,  on  good  authority,  that  efficient  ventila- 
tion improves  the  acoustic  properties  of  a  theatre.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  question  of  ventilation  should 
always  be  treated  in  connection  with  the  question  of 
safety  from  fire.  To  depend,  for  example,  for  the 
ventilation  of  the  stage  upon  a  strong  current  of  air 
from  the  stage  towards  the  auditorium,  seems  to  me 
to  be  a  grave  mistake.  For,  with  such  an  arrangement, 
in  case  of  a  fire  on  the  stage — and  it  is  proven  by  statis- 
tics that  the  majority  of  theatre  fires  have  their  origin 
on  the  stage — the  smoke  from  the  burning  scenic  decor- 
ations, etc.,  would  be  drawn  into  the  upper  part  of 
the  auditorium,  suffocating  numberless  persons  in  the 
gallery  before  they  can  make  their  escape  from  the 
burning  building.  On  the  contrary,  it  appears  to  me 
that  it  should  be  the  aim  to  create,  in  such  cases,  a 
strong  current  away  from  the  auditorium  in  the  direc- 
tion towards  the  stage.  Doubtless,  this  can  be  effi- 
ciently accomplished,  and  one  way  of  doing  it  is  to 
provide  large  ventilators  in  the  roof  over  the  stage. 
With  the  stage  cut  off  from  the  auditorium  by  a  fire- 
proof or  fire-resisting  curtain,  of  asbestos  cloth,  for 
instance,  the  audience  would  have  plenty  of  time  to 


THEATRE   SANITATION.  81 

escape  unhurt,  and  repetitions  of  fire  catastrophes, 
such  as  those  of  the  Ring  Theatre  in  Vienna,  and  of 
Nizza,  would  become  impossible. 

Leaving  aside,  however,  the  question  of  fire,  it  seems 
but  reasonable  to  require  that  the  stage  should  have  at 
all  times  thorough  ventilation.  The  fumes  incident 
to  colored  fires,  the  smoke  due  to  burnt  gun  powder, 
slight  gas  leaks  and  other  stage  odors  should  never  be 
allowed  to  penetrate  the  auditorium.  Whoever  has 
been  an  eye-witness  to  the  endless  coughing  and  sneez- 
ing of  the  audience  after  a  battle  scene,  such  as  that 
presented  recently  at  the  New  York  Academy  of  Music, 
in  the  play  of  "  Shenandoah,"  will  agree  to  my  proposition 
that  separate  stage  ventilation  is  extremely  desirable. 

There  should  always  be  adequate  actors'  dressing- 
room  accommodations.  These  rooms,  too,  require  to 
be  efficiently  ventilated,  preferably  by  windows  to 
the  outer  air,  or  by  special  vent  shafts,  where  windows 
are  out  of  the  question.  Finally,  the  toilet-rooms  require 
a  constant  change  of  air,  and  an  abundant  supply  of 
fresh  air  to  keep  them  sweet  and  wholesome.  Special 
stress  should  be  laid  upon  the  necessity  of  arranging 
for  a  current  of  air  from  the  halls  into  the  toilet-rooms, 
and  not  vice  versa,  for  otherwise,  however  well  the  sys- 
tem of  ventilation  may  work,  unpleasant  odors  from 
the  water-closets  and  urinals  may  penetrate  to  other 
parts  of  the  theatre. 

The  boiler-  and  engine-rooms  should  also  have  plenty 
of  fresh  air,  and  all  building  regulations  provide  that 
the  vaults  where  gas  meters  are  set,  must  have  suitable 
ventilation,  to  prevent  explosions  of  gas. 


82  SANITATION   OF   PUBLIC   BUILDINGS. 

6.  Lighting  of  Theatres. — In  the  matter  of  lighting,  I 
have  already  pointed  out  that  with  the  advent  of  the 
incandescent  electric  lights  a  new  era  in  theatre  sani- 
tation has  begun.  Possibly  some  readers  may  remem- 
ber the  primitive  methods  in  vogue  years  ago  of  lighting 
up  the  stage  and  auditorium  of  a  theatre  by  means  of 
tallow  candles.  Not  only  was  this  mode  of  illumin- 
ation fraught  with  danger  from  fire,  but  the  smoke  and 
the  greasy  smell  from  the  candle  lights  rendered  actual 
enjoyment  of  a  play  impossible.  A  slight  improvement 
was  effected  when  oil  lamps  and  Argand  burners  were 
substituted  for  the  open  candle  flames,  but  still  the 
danger  from  fire  was  not  lessened  to  any  extent.  The 
introduction  of  the  gas  light  brought  increased  illu- 
mination, but  it  also  increased  immeasurably  the  fire 
risk,  particularly  on  the  stage.  The  innumerable  open 
gas  flames  both  on  the  stage  and  in  the  auditorium, 
and  the  objectionable  central  chandelier  in  particular, 
created  a  powerful  air  contamination,  so  that  good 
ventilation  seemed  almost  out  of  the  question. 

The  electric  light  has  not  only  rendered  theatres 
vastly  better  and  safer  from  the  danger  of  a  conflag- 
ration, but  it  has  helped  to  solve,,  more  than  anything 
else,  the  question  of  theatre  ventilation.  Anyone  may 
verify  this  statement  by  visiting  successively  one  of 
the  modern  theatres  lighted  by  electricity  and  one  of 
the  older  theatres  lighted  by  gas  flames.  As  a  matter 
of  safety,  building  regulations  require  for  theatres  two 
kinds  of  illumination,  namely  electric  lights  for  the 
auditorium  and  the  stage,  and  in  the  corridors,  stair- 
cases, foyers,  and  exits  an  auxiliary  system  of  candle 


THEATRE   SANITATION.  83 

or  oil  lamps,  but  it  is  wisely  required  that  these  auxiliary 
lights  be  set  in  wall  niches  provided  with  separate 
ventilation  to  the  outer  air.  Where  two  independent 
sources  of  the  electric  current  can  be  had,  the  aux- 
iliary system  of  lighting  may  consist  of  electric  lights 
supplied  from  a  current  other  than  that  which  sup- 
plies the  auditorium  and  the  stage. 

7.  General  Sanitation. — Having  now  discussed  the  im- 
portant requirements  of  drainage,  plumbing,  water 
supply,  ventilation,  and  lighting,  it  remains  to  speak 
briefly  of  some  matters  connected  with  general  cleanli- 
ness in  theatres.  From  what  follows,  it  will  be  seen 
that  all  measures  tending  to  insure  cleanliness,  will 
also  help  to  improve  the  ventilation  by  removing 
sources  of  air  pollution,  such  as  indoor  dust,  accumu- 
lations of  dirt  and  rubbish,  slops  and  oily  wastes,  ill- 
kept  plumbing  fixtures,  etc.  At  the  same  time,  a 
due  regard  for  these  details  of  theatre  management 
will  render  a  theatre  building  in  many  respects  safer 
from  the  danger  of  fire. 

That  the  floors,  walls,  chairs,  and  seats  in  a  theatre 
building  should  be  kept  clean  goes  without  saying, 
yet,  in  how  many  instances  is  the  reverse  true!  All 
manner  of  rubbish  and  dirt  should  be  removed  from 
the  theatre  daily;  both  the  stage  floor  and  all  parts 
of  the  auditorium  should  be  swept  and  thoroughly 
dusted  and  cleaned  out  every  morning.  The  dusting 
should  be  done  in  such  a  manner  that  the  dust  will  not 
merely  be  floated  in  the  air,  to  settle  again  upon  the 
floor  covering,  the  upholstery,  and  the  decorations. 

The  floors  should  be  scrubbed  and  swept,  but  care 


84  SANITATION  OF  PUBLIC   BUILDINGS. 

should  be  exercised  not  to  make  them  so  wet  as  to 
smell  murky  and  damp  in  the  evening.  Where  pos- 
sible, the  hall  should  be  flooded  with  outdoor  air  once 
a  day.  If  some  sunlight  can  be  admitted  all  the  better, 
for  I  need  n6t  state  that  sunlight  is  a  better  disinfectant 
than  any  artificial  or  proprietary  article,  no  matter 
how  well  it  may  be  advertised. 

The  dust  accumulating  in  a  theatre  is  a  far  more 
serious  danger  to  health  than  most  persons  are  apt  to 
believe.  It  is  but  necessary  to  contemplate  for  a  moment 
the  vast  amount  of  out-door  dust  and  dirt,  carried 
daily  and  nightly  into  a  theatre  by  the  many  hundreds 
of  persons  who  go  to  see  a  play.  The  dirt  which  clings 
to  the  shoes  is  partly  deposited  in  the  floor  carpets, 
and  often,  I  regret  to  say,  expectorations  are  added, 
which  in  the  case  of  persons  suffering  from  pulmonary 
troubles,  may  be  laden  with  the  germs  of  tuberculosis. 
Unless  the  utmost  care  is  exercised  in  sweeping  out 
the  floor  and  in  dusting  off  the  chairs  and  the  upholstery, 
the  finer  particles  are  not  removed  but  continue  to 
float  about  in  the  air,  and  finally  settle  on  the  floor 
covering  and  in  the  plush  of  the  chairs,  and  are  again 
stirred  up  when  a  new  audience  enters  for  another 
evening's  enjoyment. 

Little  attention  has  in  the  past  been  devoted  to  the 
question  of  suitable  furniture  and  upholstering  of 
audience  halls.  I  am  inclined  to  think  that,  as  a  sani- 
tary preventive  measure,  all  plush  upholstery  and  other 
material  catching  and  holding  dust,  and  all  heavy 
hangings  and  decorations  of  the  boxes  should  be  done 
away  with  in  theatres.  Chairs  covered  with  leather 


THEATRE    SANITATION.  85 

would  be  far  better,  and  doubtless  other  sanitary  fur- 
niture coverings  are  available.  As  a  safety  measure 
against  outbreaks  of  fire,  the  decorations  of  the  front 
of  the  boxes  and  of  the  proscenium  opening  are  called 
for  in  building  taws  to  be  of  fireproof  material.  The 
natter  such  decorations  are  made,  the  better  they  are 
from  a  sanitary  point  of  view,  for  then  they  will  not 
so  easily  catch  or  hold  dust.  Then  there  is  the  ques- 
tion of  suitable  sanitary  floor  covering.  I  hold  that 
carpets  should  not  be  tolerated.  There  are  better,  not 
more  expensive  -floor  coverings  such  as  linoleum,  or 
the  recently  introduced  interlocked  rubber  tile  floor 
covering  which  commend  themselves  to  me  as  vast 
improvements  over  carpets.  Handsome  patterns  of 
these  new  sanitary  floor  coverings  may  doubtless  be 
obtained  should  a  demand  for  them  for  audience  halls 
arise;  but  in  any  event,  the  question  of  decoration 
should  in  my  judgment  be  subordinate  to  that  of 
health.  "Sams  Publica  Suprema  Lex"  is  an  old 
saying,  which  may  be  aptly  applied  to  this  entire 
question. 

With  such  improved  furniture  and  floor  coverings, 
dusting,  if  done  under  the  watchful  eye  of  a  special 
theatre  inspector,  would  be  freed  from  the  ordinary 
ever-present  dangers. 

Let  me  add  that  the  same  person  intrusted  with  the 
cleaning  up  of  a  theatre,  should  be  in  charge  of  the 
proper  maintenance  of  all  toilet-rooms,  for  here  again 
eternal  vigilance  is  the  price  of  safety.  Plumbing  fix- 
tures in  a  public  place  are  too  apt  to  be  abused,  no 
matter  how  well  arranged,  therefore  frequent  applica- 


86  SANITATION   OF  PUBLIC   BUILDINGS. 

tions   of    soap,  brush,  and  hot   water  are  necessary  to 
keep  the  appliances  free  from  odor. 

In  the  matter  of  floor  space  allotted  to  each  person 
in  the  audience,  there  is  also  much  room  for  improve- 
ment. The  floor  area  for  each  person  -  should  be  more 
generous,  particularly  in  the  gallery,  the  seats  should 
be  wider  and  made  more  comfortable,  and  above  all, 
there  should  be  plenty  of  wide  gangways  and  aisles 
to  secure  a  quick  emptying  of  the  house. 

In  conclusion,  I  must  mention  another  matter  of 
importance  in  which  the  theatre-going  public  is  inter- 
ested. I  refer  to  the  drinking  water,  kept  in  water- 
coolers  and  pitchers,  or  served  recently  in  some  theatres 
on  neat  trays  to  the  patrons  of  the  lower  parts  of  the 
auditorium.  The  drinking  water  should  be  filtered  by 
one  of  the  few  really  germ-proof  filters.  These  filters 
should  be  cleaned  often,  and  occasionally  sterilized. 
Where  water  is  cooled  by  means  of  ice,  it  should  be  done 
in  such  a  way  that  the  melted  ice  will  not  mingle  with 
the  drinking  water.  It  is  well  known  that  ice  fre- 
quently contains  .organic  impurities  and  germs  of  disease ; 
it  would,  therefore,  be  a  useless  proceeding  to  first  filter 
the  water  and  to  render  it  afterwards  subject  to  pollu- 
tion from  impure  ice. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

For  the  Literature  on  Theatres  the  reader  is  referred  to  the 
bibliography  in  the  author's  book:  "Theatre  Fires  and 
Panics:  Their  Causes  and  Prevention,"  published  by  John 
Wiley  &  Sons. 


CHURCH    SANITATION 


Ill 


CHURCH   SANITATION 

IF  one  could  form  a  right  conclusion  from  the  small 
number  of  instances,  when  sanitary  and  ventilating 
engineers  are  professionally  consulted  in  the  case  of 
church  buildings,  one  would  naturally  infer  that  sani- 
tation is  not  required,  and  certainly  very  little  thought 
of,  in  the  planning  and  erecting  of  houses  of  worship. 
On  the  other  hand,  when  we  take  into  consideration 
the  fact,  well  established  by  recent  examples,  that  a 
modern  large  church  edifice  requires  not  only  drainage 
and  sewerage,  water  supply,  and  gas  piping,  the  same 
as  any  other  building,  but  also  contains  quite  often  an 
elaborate  array  of  plumbing  fixtures,  in  the  shape  of 
toilet-rooms,  kitchens,  serving  pantries,  gymnasia  with 
baths  and  lockers,  and,  for  some  denominations,  immer- 
sion pools,  etc.,  it  would  seem  that  a  short  chapter  in 
a  work,  intended  to  describe  the  different  sanitary 
engineering  features  of  the  more  important  public 
buildings,  should  be  devoted  to  "  Church  Hygiene." 

It  is,  perhaps,  a  trite  saying  that  "cleanliness  is  next 
to  godliness,"  but  nevertheless  it  seems  quite  applic- 
able to  buildings  in  which  the  gospel  is  preached  and 
in  which  a  large  audience  takes  part  in  religious  services. 

It  is  estimated  that  approximately  4000  churches  are 


90  SANITATION  OF  PUBLIC  BUILDINGS. 

built  every  year  in  the  United  States,  and  it  is  a  fact 
that  in  by  far  the  largest  number  the  purely  utilitarian 
features  of  construction  and  equipment  are  either  very 
little  thought  of  or  neglected  altogether.  Even  the 
municipal  departments  whose  duty  it  is  to  watch  the 
construction,  ventilation  and  sanitation  of  buildings, 
and  which  have  in  the  past  decades  made  numerous 
reports  and  examinations  regarding  the  sanitary  con- 
dition of  school-houses,  hospitals,  and  tenement-houses, 
have  but  very  seldom  inquired  into  the  conditions 
actually  existing  in  many  church  edifices. 

i.  Sanitary  Defects  in  Churches. — Occasionally  the 
subject  is  taken  up  by  the  newspaper  press,  and  articles 
such  as  the  following  on  "Church  Sanitation,"  taken 
from  the  New  York  Times  of  May  21,  1900,  call  the 
attention  of  the  general  public  to  the  undesirable  and 
unsanitary  conditions  existing: 

"In  the  arrangement  made  by  the  Trustees  of  our  city 
churches  for  the  general  overhauling  and  renovation,  for  which 
the  vacation  season  affords  opportunity,  we  suggest  that  a 
thorough  sanitary  survey  and  inspection  be  included. 

"We  have  in  mind  a  large  church  which,  if  not  distinctly 
typical,  is  at  least  a  conspicuous  example  of  the  tendencies  of 
modern  church  architecture.  It  is  a  comparatively  new  church, 
costs  a  great  deal  of  money,  has  a  large  and  wealthy  congre- 
gation, and  is  greatly  admired.  It  occupies  an  area  equiva- 
lent to  about  five  city  lots.  The  auditorium  is  beautiful,  with 
excellent  acoustic  properties ;  it  is  well  lighted,  equably  heated, 
and  fairly  well  ventilated.  Owing  to  the  necessity  for  econo- 
mizing ground  space,  the  principal  Sunday  School  room  is  in 
the  basement,  under  a  portion  of  the  auditorium.  This  is  un- 
fortunate, as  it  is  usually  damp,  and  under  some  atmospheric 
conditions  distinctly  'musty.'  To  give  this  basement  light 
and  ventilation,  an  area  about  ten  feet  wide  has  been  provided 


CHURCH   SANITATION.  91 

on  one  side  of  the  building,  extending  its  entire  length.  It  has 
a  flag  bottom  and  brick  or  stone  sides.  Near  the  bottom  of 
this  area  are  the  metal  gratings  covering  the  air  intakes  for 
the  hot-air  furnaces,  which  are  brick  tunnels  under  the  base- 
ment floor.  The  area  is  usually  damp  and  always  more  or  less 
dirty.  It  is  a  catch  basin  for  all  kinds  of  street  dirt,  carried 
and  dropped  by  the  wind  eddies,  and  a  great  deal  of  this  dirt 
in  dry  and  windy  weather  is  swept  into  the  air  ducts  by  the 
inflowing  currents.  In  winter,  this  area  contains  more  or  less 
dirty  ice  and  snow,  which  melts  slowly  and  loads  the  indrawn 
air  with  moisture  to  a  point  of  saturation.  The  air  ducts 
under  the  cellar  floor  have  never  been  examined  or  cleaned 
since  the  church  was  built  and  their  condition  is  a  matter  of 
conjecture.  It  may,  however,  be  safely  assumed  that  they 
contain  a  great  deal  of  dirt  of  the  average  composition  of  street 
sweepings.  The  arrangement  we  have  described,  though  quite 
usual  in  both  church  and  house  construction,  is  distinctly 
bad  and  positively  dangerous.  To  take  air  for  heating  and 
distribution  by  hot-air  furnaces  from  the  ground  level  is  to 
insure  getting  with  it  a  great  deal  of  dampness  and  dirt;  to 
take  it  from  subterranean  pockets,  uncleaned,  unsunned,  and 
generally  neglected,  is  to  make  the  matter  worse.  Such  air 
is  unfit  for  breathing,  and  accounts  for  many  diseases  of  the 
breathing  organs,  especially  in  children,  among  which  bron- 
chitis, croup,  diphtheritic  sore  throat,  and  true  diphtheria 
may  be  included. 

"In  the  church  we  have  described  there  are  plumbing  fixtures 
scattered  about.  The  modern  church  needs  toilet-rooms.  The 
fixtures  are  placed  in  out  of  the  way  corners,  in  dark  closets 
under  stairs,  and  where  adequate  ventilation  for  the  apart- 
ments containing  them  is  impossible.  Indeed,  no  attempt  has 
been  made  to  secure  it.  The  suggestion  that  this  might  be 
dangerous  was  brushed  aside  by  the  sexton  on  the  ground 
that  they  are  'not  much  used.'  These  fixtures  discharge 
through  long  and  of  necessity  nearly,  if  not  quite,  horizontal 
lead  wastes  into  a  common  drain  under  the  basement  floor, 
which  is  also  a  channel  for  rain-water  caught  on  part  of  the 
roof.  During  a  heavy  shower  the  rush  of  water  through  this 
drain  will  unseal  every  trap  in  the  building.  Some  of  the  fix- 
tures are  not  used  oftener  than  perhaps  once  a  month.  Mean- 
while thev  are  forgotten.  No  provision  has  been  made  for 


92  SANITATION   OF  PUBLIC  BUILDINGS. 

flushing  these  traps,  and  as  a  consequence  they  are  either  foul 
or  dry  most  of  the  time. 

"A  portion  of  the  basement  is  used  for  a  lumber  room.  This 
is  usually  full  of  rubbish  which  has  no  other  function  than  to 
increase  the  fire  risk.  Broken  furniture,  worn-out  hassocks, 
discarded  pew  cushions,  bits  of  old  carpet,  dilapidated  hymn 
books,  and  the  like  are  piled  up  with  intervening  dust  strata 
in  great  confusion.  In  this  compartment  is  a  small  supple- 
mentary furnace  for  emergency  heating,  which  draws  its  air- 
supply  from  the  room  at  the  floor  level. 

"The  church,  Sunday  school,  and  lecture  room,  the  prin- 
cipal stairways  and  passageways,  are  carpeted.  These  carpets 
are  tacked  to  the  floors,  and  are  taken  up  for  cleaning  once 
a  year.  Between  December  and  June  they  become  extremely 
dirty.  Pew  cushions  are  beaten  and  brushed  once  a  year — 
at  other  times  they  are  superficially  dusted.  In  none  of  these 
matters  is  there  any  deliberate  neglect.  The  difficulty  is  that 
they  are  left  to  the  discretion  of  the  people  who  do  not  know 
what  the  hygiene  of  a  church  requires,  for  whose  guidance  no 
code  of  rules  has  been  formulated,  and  whose  work  is  not 
supervised  by  any  one  with  a  knowledge  of  how  it  should  be 
done.  Behind  this  negligence,  and  emphasizing  it,  are  original 
faults  of  construction,  largely  the  result  of  a  mistaken  idea 
on  the  part  of  the  architect  that  in  church  building  it  is  proper 
that  everything  should  be  sacrificed  to  a  more  or  less  successful 
imitation  of  mediaeval  standards  of  construction  and  decora- 
tion. It  is  not  difficult  to  understand  these  preferences  of 
the  architect;  but  for  practical  laymen  charged  with  the  man- 
agement of  church  temporalities  it  should  require  no  argu- 
ment to  show,  that  the  duty  of  making  and  keeping  church 
buildings  safe  places  of  assembly  for  adults  and  children  is  a 
personal  obligation,  which  cannot  be  delegated  to  anyone. 
There  is  no  warrant  for  the  notion  that  because  a  church  is 
occupied  only  a  few  hours  a  week  its  sanitation  is  safely  neg- 
ligible. Holiness  and  malaria  are  not  twin  sisters,  and  should 
not  be  made  to  go  hand  in  hand." 

Making  due  allowance  for  some  pardonable  exagger- 
ations and  some  minor  inaccuracies,  the  article  quoted 
above  is  worthy  of  serious  attention  of  those  who 


CHURCH   SANITATION.  93 

make  a  specialty  of  planning  and  erecting  church  build- 
ings. 

When  the  author,  in  1898,  presented  to  the  American 
Public  Health  Association  a  paper  dealing  with  the 
subject  of  "Theatre  Sanitation,"  the  same  was  not 
only  widely  commented  upon,  but  its  chief  points  were 
extended  and  applied  by  reviewers  to  the  sanitation 
of  churches.  Thus,  in  the  Medical  Record  of  January  7, 
1899,  appeared  an  editorial,  entitled  "Sanitation  of 
Public  Places  of  Amusement  and  Churches,"  from  which 
a  few  quotations  appear  to  be  appropriate: 

"The  hygienic  arrangements  of  theatres  and  other  places  of 
amusement  are  all  the  world  over  disgracefully  neglected.  The 
importance  of  the  thorough  sanitation  of  schools  and  similar 
institutions  is  now  fully  realized,  and  no  expense  or  trouble 
is  grudged  in  carefully  looking  after  the  bodily  as  well  as  the 
mental  welfare  of  the  young.  Not  only  do  parents  insist  that 
the  schools  they  select  for  their  sons  and  daughters  should  be 
in  a  good  state*  of  sanitary  soundness,  but  those  in  authority 
evince  a  praiseworthy  disposition  to  see  that  the  atmosphere 
of  the  educational  establishments  is  pure  and  wholesome.  It 
is  therefore  decidedly  curious  that  the  greater  portion  of  the 
adult  members  of  the  community  exhibit  a  complete  indiffer- 
ence towards  matters  hygienic  in  connection  with  theatres  and 
music  halls.  One  reason*  for  their  careless  disregard  of  the 
laws  of  health  is  without  doubt  owing  to  the  fact  that  a  stay 
in  a  place  of  amusement  is  necessarily  brief,  and  that,  so  long 
as  attention  is  paid  to  pleasing  the  eye  and  ear,  it  appears  to 
be  a  question  of  small  moment  whether  the  air  is  healthy  or 
foul.  Nevertheless,  there  are  signs  that  the  general  public  are 
becoming  more  alive  to  the  dangers  lurking  in  theatres  and 
establishments  of  a  like  nature,  and  it  is  probable  that  in  the 
near  future  the  construction  of  buildings  devoted  to  pleasure 
will  be  conducted  with  a  due  regard  to  the  health  of  their 
patrons  .  .  .  For  the  most  part,  theatres,  concert  halls,  and 
places  of  the  same  class  are  but  'whited  sepulchres/  externally 


94  SANITATION  OF  PUBLIC   BUILDINGS. 

and  internally  gorgeous  and  often  artistic,  but  woefully  lack- 
ing in  almost  every  other  respect.  Many  of  them  have  but 
few  windows  and  no  means  of  renewing  the  air  when  empty. 
Their  location  is  often  in  a  high  degree  prejudicial  to  health. 
In  large  towns  like  New  York,  London,  Chicago,  where  space 
is  valuable,  such  establishments  are  not  infrequently  pushed 
in  between  immense  buildings,  with  scarcely  any  frontage. 
The  sewerage  is  bad,  and  indeed  Mr.  Gerhard  says  that  'he 
knows  of  at  least  one  theatre  in  Greater  New  York  where,  each 
time  the  curtain  rises,  a  strong  whiff  of  sewer  air  greets  the 
audience '.  The  fact,  then,  that  the  system  of  the  sanitary 
arrangements  of  most  places  of  amusement  is  altogether  wrong 
may  be  taken  as  proven,  and  the  question  remains,  in  what 
way  can  a  thorough  change  for  the  better  be  brought  about? 
To  touch  even  briefly  upon  the  many  points  of  sanitary  reform 
which  can  and  should  be  effected  in  the  sense-stimulating  and 
mind-relaxing  establishments  of  the  people,  is  a  subject  quite 
too  intricate  and  arduous.  However,  as  to  ventilation,  the 
opinion  of  experts  would  seem  to  be  that  the  mechanical  method 
by  propulsion  is  the  only  one  whereby  a  theatre  can  be  properly 
aired,  and  that  there  should  be  an  allowance  of  about  eighteen 
hundred  -cubic  feet  of  pure  atmosphere  per  hour  for  each  indi- 
vidual. A  person  does  not  care — be  the  entertainment  provided 
for  his  delectation  as  excellent  as  possible — to  run  the  risk  of 
being  poisoned  by  foul  air.  If  the  public  will  make  a  deter- 
mined stand  and  refuse  to  sit  in  an  unhealthy  building,  an 
alteration  in  the  existing  condition  of  affairs  will  be  quickly 
affected.  So  long  as  playgoers  are  indifferent  the  managers, 
whose  sole  object  would  appear  to  be  to  make  money,  will 
allow  matters  to  remain  in  statu  quo. 

"Theatre  proprietors  are  unfortunately  not  the  only  sinners 
as  regards  the  health  of  their  congregations.  Churches  of  all 
denominations  are  in  many  instances  overcrowded  and  insuffi- 
ciently ventilated.  These  remarks  especially  apply  to  the 
Roman  Catholic  houses  of  worship.  These  are  in  the  majority 
of  cases  ill-lighted  from  without  and  either  stuffy  or  draughty. 
Masses  in  many  of  them  are  held  at  frequent  intervals,  at 
which  all  sorts  and  conditions  of  people  are  present.  This  is, 
of  course,  as  it  should  be;  but,  after  all,  the  worshippers  have 
a  right  to  expect  that  a  certain  amount  of  consideration  should 
be  given  to  their  bodily  well-being.  At  a  church,  as  at  a  theatre, 


CHURCH   SANITATION.  95 

it  is  impossible  to  provide  a  sufficient  allowance  of  pure  air 
by  means  of  windows  or  other  openings.  Consequently  the 
only  effective  alternative  is  the  mechanical  process  of  ventila- 
tion already  referred  to. 

"The  London  Times,  in  an  article  written  in  January  1896, 
refers  to  the  subject  of  overcrowding  in  churches  thus:  'We 
regard  this  as  a  highly  objectionable  practice  in  two  respects — 
first,  on  account  of  the  danger  of  blocking  the  exits  in  case 
of  panic,  and  second,  because  of  the  injury  to  health  caused 
by  cramming  a  building  to  its  utmost  capacity.  Churches  are 
never  too  well  ventilated,  and  there  should  be  a  definite  limit 
imposed  upon  the  members  of  the  congregation. "  P>oth 
theatres  and  churches  are  a  long  way  from  being  hygienically 
perfect,  and  it  rests  with  the  general  public  that  the  necessary 
reforms  should  be  introduced." 

It  is  not  alone  in  the  construction  and  equipment  of 
churches  that  many  sins  of  omission  and  commission 
are  perpetrated,  but  in  the  management  of  such  build- 
ings after  their  completion  much  negligence  or  indiffer- 
ence is  apparent.  It  is  very  often  found  that  an  entire 
and  serious  disregard  to  sanitary  maintenance  exists. 
Witness  the  following  comments  which  appeared  some 
years  ago  in  the  New  York  Independent,  under  the 
heading  "Church  Sanitation." 

"Some  of  the  greatest  breaches  of  sanitary  law  and  sanitary 
administration  are  to  be  met  in  our  churches.  The  mere 
sweeping  and  dusting  of  a  church  requires  all  that  care  and 
attention  which  is  bestowed  by  the  good  housekeeper  upon 
her  house.  Generally  this  work  is  committed  to  men  not 
trained  in  any  such  service.  The  carpets  and  cushions  of 
many  a  church  receive  but  a  very  rare  shaking,  and  no  such 
rubbing  and  dusting  as  are  necessary  to  sustain  cleanliness. 

"But  it  is  especially  in  matters  of  ventilation,  heating,  and 
lighting  that  we  suffer  from  the  mismanagement  of  churches. 

"  When  a  congregation  is  dismissed,  the  first  business  of 
the  sexton  should  be  a  thorough  ventilation  of  the  build- 


96  SANITATION  OP  PUBLIC  BUILDINGS. 

ing.  This  does  not  mean  merely  the  pushing  up  of  a  win- 
dow or  two.  With  the  tendency  that  air  has  to  cling  to 
surfaces,  and  of  floating  particles  to  do  the  same,  any  crowded 
church  needs  such  thorough  flushing  with  air  as  can  only  be 
secured  by  a  very  extensive  opening  of  it  to  the  outer  air. 
This  may  not  be  necessary  nor  possible  between  a  morning 
and  evening  service,  but  it  is  especially  desirable  after  the 
latter.  From  inquiry,  we  believe  it  to  be  the  more  common 
practice  for  the  airing  to  be  left  until  the  day  before  the  Sab- 
bath, and  then  for  it  to  be  done  in  a  very  imperfect  way. 

"The  church  is  thus  left  filled  with  the  contaminated  air 
for  nearly  a  week.  It  lacks  the  advantage  of  a  house  that  is 
used  every  day,  which  gets  some  ventilation  by  the  opening 
of  doors  and  windows  and  the  passing  in  and  out  of  occu- 
pants and  guests.  The  stifled  air  settles  about  its  corners 
and  crevices,  or  sinks  along  the  pews,  and  is  not  easy  removed 
by  the  work  of  the  following  week.  Indeed,  there  is  often 
painstaking  not  to  remove  much  of  it,  but  to  keep  it  for  the 
hasty  warming.  It  is  too  little  realized  that  the  numbers  of 
people  and  the  multitudes  of  lights  at  evening  very  rapidly 
exhaust  the  oxygen  from  the  air. 

"At  the  close  of  a  day's  service  there  is  a  reservoir  of  im- 
pure air,  which  should  be  peremptorily  turned  out-of-doors. 
The  day  following  the  Sabbath  is  the  best  cleaning  and  regu- 
lating day  for  church  assembly-rooms.  The  design  of  the 
previous  afternoon  or  early  Sabbath  morning  opening  should 
not  be  the  removal  of  foul  air,  but  of  any  dampness,  by  let- 
ting in  fresh  air,  and  sunshine.  It  is  the  proper  union  of  these 
two  methods  that  secures  the  best  condition  of  air  for  churches. 

"As  all  large  assembly-rooms  are  difficult  of  regulation  as  to 
draughts,  churches  should  not  depend  much  on  window  ven- 
tilation during  service.  If 'they  do,  the  persons  in  adjacent 
pews,  or  those  receiving  the  air  on  the  back  of  the  heads  or 
necks,  not  infrequently  take  cold.  When  window  ventilation 
is  at  all  relied  upon,  pieces,  or  strips,  of  board  should  be  placed  so 
under  the  lower  sash  as  to  make  an  inlet  between  the  upper 
and  lower  sashes  when  the  latter  is  raised  and  the  strip  of 
board  placed  under  it.  Where  windows  are  open  from  the  top, 
those  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  room  should  be  shut,  that 
direct  draughts  may  be  prevented.  The  Tobin  system  of  ven- 
tilation, or  some  other  by  which  air  is  admitted  through  the 


V         F  THE 


SANITATION.  97 

walls  and  at  a  height  above  the  heads  of  persons  standing,  is 
much  better  than  the  usual  window  ventilation.  Openings 
above  lamps  and  chandeliers  aid  in  the  removal  of  foul  air, 
but  in  large  rooms  not  so  much  as  is  generally  supposed,  unless 
there  is  additional  aid  to  exhaust  the  room  or  attic  above. 

"Churches  suffer  much  from  imperfect  modes  of  heating. 
Often  there  is  an  attempt  to  make  one  or  two  furnaces  do  the 
work  which  should  be  distributed  among  several.  It  is  hard 
to  distribute  heat  from  one  centre  over  a  large  assembly-room  . 
When  the  attempt  is  made,  the  furnace  is  driven  at  such  a 
heat  as  to  introduce  air  at  entirely  too  high  a  temperature 
for  comfortable  diffusion.  In  the  attempt,  carbonic  oxide 
and  various  gases  of  forced  combustion  are  blown  in  with  the 
heated  aii.  There  is  also  that  burnt  feeling  of  the  heated  air 
so  often  complained  of,  and  an  absence  of  moisture,  which 
makes  sudden  demands  upon  individuals  as  well  as  upon  sur- 
roundings. If  most  of  'our  churches  are  to  continue  to  de- 
pend upon  furnaces,  we  are  not  sure  but  that  fireplaces  will 
have  to  take  their  places  in  various  corners,  as  a  means  of  ven- 
tilation. 

'  '  Every  sexton  needs  to  make  the  particular  building  he 
superintends  a  study  as  to  its  administration.  In  this  he 
must  keep  clear  of  notions  and  of  mere  sensations.  The  ther- 
mometer here  and  there  should  tell  him  the  actual  warmth. 
He  should  know  how  to  test  draughts,  and  then  should  not 
be  governed  by  the  feelings  of  others." 

On  the  other  hand,  in  exceptional  instances,  the  very 
minutest  attention  is  paid  in  some  churches  to  the 
maintenance  of  healthful  conditions,  and  as  a  case  in 
point,  I  quote  from  an  article  in  the  Sanitary  Record 
and  Journal  on  "Church  Hygiene,"  the  following  brief 
statement  showing  that  cleanliness  and  sanitation  are 
receiving,  in  some  quarters,  all  the  attention  which 
they  deserve. 

"In  view  of  the  remarks,  recently  published  in  our  columns, 
on  the  relation  of  the  church  to  sanitation,  some  information 


98  SANITATION  OF  PUBLIC  BUILDINGS. 

appearing  in  a  French  journal  is  not  without  interest.  It 
seems  that  the  Italian  Bishop  of  Fano  has  sent  out  a  circular 
to  the  priests  of  his  diocese,  directing  that  in  all  churches 
immediately  after  feast-days,  on  which  there  have  been  very 
large  congregations,  the  floors  must  be  disinfected  by  means 
of  wood  saw-dust  soaked  in  a  one-tenth  percent  solution  of  . 
corrosive-sublimate.  On  ordinary  days,  they  must  be  fre- 
quently swept,  after  sprinkling  them  with  water,  so  as  to  raise 
no  dust.  It  is  further  directed  that  every  week,  and  even 
oftener,  the  pews  and  confessionals  must  be  cleaned  with 
sponges  and  cloths  moistened  with  pure  water,  and  that  every 
week,  and  oftener,  if  necessary,  the  grilles  of  the  confessionals 
are  to  be  washed  and  polished,  while  the  holy-water  receptacles 
must  be  emptied  every  week,  or  oftener  if  necessary,  and  washed 
with  hot  water  or  a  solution  of  corrosive-sublimate.  In  order 
that  these  provisions  may  be  carried  out,  the  Bishop  has  in- 
stituted a  service  of  inspection,  and  requires  the  payment  of 
fines  into  the  diocesan  treasury  for  transgression  of  any  of 
these  hygienic  rules.  The  journal  responsible  for  the  fore- 
going expresses  the  hope  that  the  Bishop  of  Fano's  example 
will  be  imitated  by  church  authorities  in  other  countries." 

2.  Sanitary  Inspection  of  Churches. — A  few  years  ago, 
in  December  1902,  the  officials  of  the  Health  Depart- 
ment of  the  City  of  New  York  made  an  inspection  of 
about  two  hundred  and  fifty  churches  and  synagogues 
in  the  Borough  of  Manhattan,  and  this,  to  my  knowledge, 
was  the  first  inspection  of  the  kind  ever  undertaken  by 
such  a  department.  The  official  report  on  the  inspec- 
tion is  probably  not  accessible,  but  sufficient  was  learned 
from  it  to  establish  the  fact  that  the  result  of  the  inspec- 
tion was  -an  unfavorable  one.  In  fact,  conditions  were 
found  to  exist  in  at  least  fifty  of  the  churches  examined 
of  such  an  unsatisfactory  nature  as  to  seriously  endanger 
the  health  of  the  congregation  and  of  the  children  at- 
tending the  Sunday-school.  It  is  stated  that  the  worst 


CHURCH   SANITATION.  99 

conditions  were  found  in  some  of  the  older  downtown 
churches,  which,  not  being  as  prosperous  as  in  former 
times,  neglected  to  maintain  or  instal  suitable  systems 
of  ventilation,  sanitation,  and  sewerage.  In  comment- 
ing upon  these  statements,  a  writer  in  the  New  York 
Times  mentions  that  considerations  of  economy  were 
probably  the  principal  cause  for  the  sanitary  neglect. 
He  cites  the  deplorable  fact  that  Sunday-school  classes 
were  held  in  basements  with  very  imperfect  ventila- 
tion, the  toilets  being  in  some  cases  separated  from 
the  main  class-rooms  only  by  thin  partitions  and  not 
being  provided  with  any  outside  windows.  It  is  no 
wonder  that,  under  such  conditions,  complaints  had 
reached  the  Health  Department  officials  that  children 
had  returned  from  Sunday-school  made  ill  as  a  result 
of  the  impure  air  of  the  class-rooms.  By  the  same 
inspection,  some  synagogues  on  the  lower  east  side  of 
New  York  City  were  found  to  be  in  an  extremely  un- 
sanitary condition.  In  some  localities  the  synagogues 
are  merely  parts  of  buildings,  of  which  the  remaining 
portions  are  devoted  to  sleeping  quarters  on  the  upper 
floors,  and  to  shops  on  the  ground  floor.  Many  evi- 
dences of  a  surprising  disregard  of  all  considerations  of 
sanitary  conditions  on  the  part  of  the  church  authori- 
ties were  discovered. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  go  further  into  the  details  re- 
vealed by  the  examination  of  the  officials,  but  it  is  to 
be  hoped  that  the  efforts  of  the  Department  in  improv- 
ing the  sanitary  condition  of  the  churches  of  New  York, 
by  sending  formal  notices  to  the  Board  of  Trustees, 
and  by  informing  the  pastors  of  the  congregations  of 


TOO          SANITATION   OF  PUBLIC  BUILDINGS. 

the  sanitary  defects  discovered,  will  lead  to  an  improve- 
ment in  such,  structures,  which  is  required  alike  by 
considerations  of  decency  and  health. 

In  the  City  of  Chicago,  the  Health  Department, 
through  its  chief  sanitary  inspector,  has  recently  given 
considerable  attention  to  church  ventilation  and  sani- 
tation. Commenting  on  the  results  of  his  inspections, 
he  said  among  other  things: 

"The  air  in  most  of  the  Chicago  churches  will  send  people 
,to  heaven  quicker  than  any  of  the  preaching  they  listen  to. 
The  churches,  especially  the  Protestant  churches,  are  locked 
up  all  the  time,  with  only  brief  intervals  for  services.  The 
result  is  that  they  are  never  properly  ventilated,  and  the  air 
becomes  surcharged  with  germs  worse  than  exist  in  any  theatre 
or  wordly  place." 

It  was  also  found  that  conditions  were  not  quite  so 
bad  in  the  churches  of  the  Roman  Catholic  denomina- 
tion and  in  Episcopalian  churches,  because  the  doors 
of  these  are  open  more  of  the  time,  and  are  thus  given 
an  incidental  ventilation. 

Much  good  would  be  accomplished  if  the  example 
set  by  the  New  York  and  Chicago  Health  officials  would 
be  followed  by  other  cities. 

It  is  a  well  known  fact  that  clergymen  are  often 
susceptible  to  headaches  and  find  themselves  com- 
pletely exhausted  at  the  end  of  a  church  service,  or 
at  least  at  the  beginning  of  the  summer  vacation.  The 
reason  for  this  all-prevailing  feeling  of  lassitude  is  not 
very  far  to  seek,  it  being  doubtless  caused  by  the  often 
intolerable  condition  of  the  air  breathed  during  the 
evening  services  in  a  crowded  church.  The  effects  on 


CHURCH   SANITATION.  101 

the  audience  of  the -steady  increase  of  impurities  of  the 
air  are  in  many  cases  distinctly  perceptible  during  the 
last  part  of  the  minister's  sermon,  whereas  in  those 
churches  where  healthful  conditions  exist  and  a  per- 
fect system  of  ventilation  is  installed,  there  will  be 
found  few,  if  any,  drowsy  or  sleeping  people  in  the 
pews.  In  the  majority  of  church  buildings,  ventilation 
is  entirely  ignored  and  the  only  means  provided  for 
effecting  some  change  of  air  are  the  windows  in  the 
clerestory,  and  these  of  course  can  only  be  utilized  in 
summer  time. 

No  less  an  authority  than  Dr.  John  S.  Billings  states  in 
his  classical  work  on  ''Ventilation"  that  "the  churches 
are  like  theatres  as  a  rule,  at  least  in  one  respect,  namely, 
that  they  have  insufficient  and  unsatisfactory  arrange- 
ments for  ventilation.  The  auditorium  is  either  insuffi- 
ciently heated,  at  least  in  very  cold  weather,  or  during 
periods  of  milder  weather  they  become  overheated 
when  the  audience  is  large.  Complaints  of  unpleasant 
draughts  are  very  frequent.  Special  arrangements  for 
the  uniform  distribution  of  a  sufficient  amount  of  pure, 
warmed  air  throughout  the  auditorium  are  only  to  be 
found  in  some  special  instances  where  either  the  archi- 
tect paid  particular  attention  to  this  subject,  or  where 
a  special  heating  and  ventilating  engineer  was  entrusted 
with  the  problem." 

In  an  excellent  little  treatise  on  "Ventilation  and 
Warming,"  published  in  London  in  the  year  1894, 
the  late  author,  Ernest  H.  Jacob,  makes  a  plea  for  the 
employment  of  engineering  specialists  in  the  different 
branches  in  the  following  words: 


102  SANITATION   OF   PUBLIC  BUILDINGS. 

"Through  the  rapid  increase  of  knowledge  on  sanitary  sub- 
jects, the  architectural  profession  has  burdens  laid  on  it  heavier 
than  it  can  bear,  and  it  is  only  by  co-operation  of  architectural 
and  sanitary  experts  that  we  can  hope  to  erect  buildings  on 
a  level,  not  only  with  the  artistic  taste,  but  also  with  the  sani- 
tary knowledge  of  the  day.  ... 

"It  is  not  long  since  an  architect  of  Antwerp  actually  refused 
to  carry  out  the  erection  of  a  town  hospital,  because  the  Hos- 
pital Committee  would  not  appoint  an  engineer  to  consider 
the  plans  with  him  with  regard  to  heating  and  ventilation, 
before  the  foundations  were  laid." 

3.  Application  of  the  Principles  of  Sanitation  to 
Churches. — Church  hygiene  comprises  the  practical  appli- 
cation of  the  general  principles  of  sanitation  to  church 
buildings.  The  subject  is  an  extensive  one,  and  only 
the  more  important  matters  can  be  mentioned  here.  The 
building  of  churches  is,  as  a  rule,  placed  in  the  hands  of 
Committees,  composed  of  laymen  who  are  without  pre- 
vious experience  in  such  work,  and  often  even  without 
a  general  knowledge  of  any  kind  of  building  enterprise. 
It  is,  therefore,  all  the  more  important  that  the  Com- 
mittee should  place  reliance  upon  the  professional  advice 
given  them  by  their  architect.  A  competent  and  well 
informed  architect  will  surely  impress  them  with  the 
importance  of  sanitation,  and  tell  them  that  the  often- 
heard  excuse  that  "a  church  is  occupied  only  a  few 
hours  a  week,  hence  its  sanitation  may  be  neglected, ' ' 
cannot  be  considered  a  valid  one.  It  should  also  be 
his  duty  to  point  out  that  rather  than  put  a  consider- 
able amount  of  money  into  expensive  stained  glass, 
sculptures,  paintings,  bronzes,  and  other  works  of  art, 
screens,  furniture,  and  ecclesiastical  fittings,  it  is  wise 
to  spend  some  money  for  efficient  ventilation. 


CHURCH   SANITATION.  103 

4.  Building  Site. — The  site  for  a  church  should  be  cen- 
tral and  convenient  of  access  by  the  various  transpor- 
tation routes.     It  is  desirable  that  a  church  edifice  be 
located   at   a   prominent   street   corner.     In   European 
cities  one  often  finds  such  buildings  located  on  open 
squares,  a  precedent,  which,  however  desirable  it  may 
seem,  cannot  be  followed  in  our  cities   owing   to    the 
high   value   of  land.     The   size   of  the  lot   should   be 
ample  for  the  requirements  of  the  congregation,   and 
it  should  permit  of  the  location,  not  only  of  a  church 
building,  but  in  some  cases  of  other  buildings  required 
in  connection  with  the  same,  such  as  the  parish  house, 
the  minister's  house,  and  the  Sunday-school.     Where- 
ever  it  can  be  done,  it  is  desirable  to  have  some  open 
space   around   a   church   or  between   its  buildings,   as 
this  will  not  only  enhance  the  architectural  effect,  but 
will  secure  better  air  and  light.     It  is  not  difficult  to 
embellish  such  open  spaces  with  landscape  gardening 
in  keeping  with  the  objects  of  the  building. 

5.  Plan  and  Construction. — Many  churches  are  built 
with  only  one  story  and  thereby  gain  the  advantage 
of  greater  ease  of  access  and  of  less  danger  in  case  of 
fire  and  panic.     A  few  churches  are  built  with  a  base- 
ment story  entirely   above  ground,  but  the  majority 
of  churches  have,  in  addition  to  the  main  floor,  a  base- 
ment or  cellar,  located  partly  below  the  grade  level. 
This  cellar  or  basement  is  required  for  the  installation 
of  the  heating  apparatus,  for  fuel  storage,  and  for  the 
location  of  the  gas  or  the  electric  meters.     The  Sunday- 
school  is  in  many  churches  located  in  the  basement, 
but  such  a  location  can  only  be  tolerated  from  a  sani- 


104  SANITATION   OF  PUBLIC  BUILDINGS. 

tary  point  of  view  when  the  soil  is  perfectly  dry  and 
the  basement  made  damp-proof. 

The  plan  of  the  building  is  in  most  cases  that  of  a 
rectangle,  but  in  a  few  instances  it  is  square;  the 
larger  cathedrals  are  usually  built  in  cruciform  shape. 
In  such  a  building,  the  principal  'room  or  hall  is  the 
auditorium,  or  the  place  where  the  congregation  meets 
for  worship  and  for  the  observance  of  religious  ser- 
vices and  ceremonies.  The  seats  for  the  worshippers 
are  arranged  in  the  nave,  and  sometimes  in  the  tran- 
sept of  the  church,  and  in  addition  there  must  be  a 
place  for  the  choir,  besides  the  chancel  with  sanctuary 
and  altar.  In  connection  with  the  main  auditorium 
we  must  consider  the  entrances,  vestibules,  the  stairs 
and  the  gallery.  The  gallery  is  provided  to  gain  addi- 
tional seating  capacity  for  special  occasions  of  larger 
attendance,  though  in  some  denominations,  and  not- 
ably in  some  of  the  Jewish  buildings  of  this  class,  a 
separation  of  the  men  and  women  is  made,  and  the 
women  are  assigned  to  the  gallery. 

Where  the  plan  of  the  church  provides  for  a  Sunday- 
school  adjoining  the  auditorium,  the  gallery  is  some- 
times omitted  and  in  this  case  increased  seating  capacity 
is  gained  by  opening  the  doors  between  the  two.  In 
large  churches  a  number  of  other  rooms  may  be  re- 
quired, notably  the  study  for  the  pastor  with  an  adjoin- 
ing toilet-room,  a  choir-room,  a  robing-room,  a  special 
meeting-room  for  the  trustees,  a  lecture-room  or  chapel, 
and  a  ladies'  parlor.  The  social  features  of  a  church 
society  require  a  good  deal  of  consideration,  and  in  addi- 
tion to  the  rooms  mentioned  we  find  sometimes  a  read- 


CHURCH   SANITATION.  105 

ing-room,  a  drill-room,  and  in  a  recreation  building 
bowling  alleys  with  lavatory  and  gymnasium,  with 
baths  and  lockers. 

6.  Precautions  against  Fire  and  Panic. —  But  few 
churches  are  built  thoroughly  fireproof,  hence  we  always 
find  in  the  published  tables  which  give  the  annual  loss 
by  fire,  a  number  of  churches.  "  Surely  there  is  some- 
thing wrong  in  the  materials  used  in  church  building," 
said  a  writer  in  the  New  York  Times  after  the  destruc- 
tion of  St.  Thomas'  Church  in  New  York  City  in  1905, 
"if  they  can  flare  up  and  go  up  in  smoke.  ...  Is  it 
not  possible  to  substitute  non-combustible  materials  for 
the  galleries,  -pews  and  inner  walls?" 

At  special  church  festivals  there  is  considerable  over- 
crowding, hence  the  danger  from  panic  and  from  fire 
is  ever  present.  The  blocking  of  the  exit  doors,  in 
case  of  panic,  would  be  particularly  serious  and  hence 
much  attention  should  be  given  to  the  planning  of  the 
entrances  and  exits.  They  should -be  commodious  and 
sufficient,  in  width  and  in  number,  to  empty  a  church 
quickly.  Large  churches  should  have  more  than  one 
entrance,  and  there  should  always  be  a  special  entrance 
for  the  Sunday-school.  The  main  exit  doors  should 
be  hung  so  as  to  open  outward,  to  avoid  a  jam  in  case 
of  a  panic.*  The  inner  vestibule  doors  may  be  hung 
on  double-acting  spring  hinges.  The  vestibules  should 
be  spacious  and  capable  of  holding  a  large  crowd. 

Where  there  is  a  gallery,  the  stairs  leading  up  to  it 


*  See  Wm.  Paul  Gerhard,  "Theatre  Fires,  and  Panics:   Their 
Causes  and  Prevention." 


io6  SANITATION   OF   PUBLIC   BUILDINGS. 

should  be  wide,  without  windows,  and  with  a  con- 
venient proportion  between  risers  and  treads.  Where 
there  is  an  attic  over  the  church  auditorium  it  should 
always  be  made  accessible  by  stairs,  as  it  will  necessarily 
contain  the  distributing  lines  for  the  gas  cluster  lights 
and  the  electric  wire  conduits. 

To  enable  the  quick  emptying  of  a  church  after  ser- 
vices it  is  further  important  that  the  aisles  should  be 
of  sufficient  width.  These  should  never  be  less  than 
from  four  to  five  feet  wide,  this  depending  upon  the 
size  of  the  church,  and  the  arrangement  of  tapering 
aisles,  which  has  been  suggested,  has  much  to  recom- 
mend it.  It  is  usual  to  have  a  central  aisle  and  in 
addition  to  the  same  some  times  side  aisles.  The  centre 
aisles,  which  are  necessary  in  the  case  of  certain  religious 
ceremonies,  have  both  advantages  and  disadvantages, 
but  whether  centre  aisles  or  two  main  side  aisles  are 
used,  the  chief  requirement  is  always  that  they  can  be 
reached  quickly  from  the  seats,  and  that  they  are  suffi- 
ciently wide  to  enable  persons  to  get  out  of  doors  quickly. 

7.  Seating. — The  arrangements  of  the  seats  depend 
principally  upon  the  shape  of  the  auditorium  and  upon 
the  location  of  the  aisles  and  exits.  The  seating  may 
be  arranged  straight  or  in  a  curve,  and  it  is  of  import- 
ance that  the  spacing  between  the  rows  of  seats  should 
be  generous,  to  facilitate  the  moving  of  the  people. 
For  the  comfort  of  the  church-goers  it  is  desirable  that 
ample  floor  space  should  be  allowed  for  the  seats  or 
chairs  and  it  is  usual  to  make  this  allowance  more  liberal 
in  churches  than  in  the  case  of  other  lecture-rooms. 
For  these  it  is  usual  to  provide  a  floor  space  of  six  square 


CHURCH   SANITATION.  107 

feet  for  each  chair,  but  for  the  seats  in  the  church  audi- 
torium the  allowance  made  is  from  seven  to  eight  square 
feet.  The  floors  of  the  auditorium  are  either  level, 
inclined,  or  bowled. 

8.  Dust  in  Carpets  and  Seat  Cushions. — It  is  customary 
to  cover  at  least  a  portion  of  the  floor,  and  also  the 
aisles  and  stairs  and  passages,  with  heavy  carpets  and 
these  as  well  as  the  hair  or  felt  cushions  in  the  pews, 
with  their  coverings  of  plush  or  other  material,  accu- 
mulate in  course  of  time  a  large  amount  of  dust,  which 
interferes    with    proper    ventilation.     It    is    important 
that  the  carpets,  as  well  as  the  seats,  should  be  cleaned, 
swept  and  dusted  every  week  and  it  is  hardly  necessary 
to  state  that  this  should  be  done  in  a  judicious  manner, 
in  such  a  way  that  the  dust  is  not  scattered  through- 
out the  air,  but  that  it  may  be  properly  removed.     The 
floors  require  cleaning  and  scrubbing,  for  much  dirt  and 
dust  is  carried  in  by  the  shoes  of  persons  and  by  their 
overshoes  in  case  of  muddy  streets.     At  regular  periods 
the  floors  should  be  washed  by  means  of  some  disin- 
fecting solution;    this  is  of  particular  importance  after 
church    festival    days.     The    same    remarks    apply    of 
course  also  to  the  Sunday-school  rooms,  which  require 
perhaps  even  greater  care,  owing  to  the  large  number 
of  young  children  assembled  weekly  therein. 

9.  Artificial  Lighting  of  Churches. — The  artificial  light- 
ing of  churches  is  accomplished  by  means  of  gas  lights, 
electric  incandescent  lights,  and  sometimes  by  candles. 
Both  candles  and  gas  burners  cause  a  very  rapid  deteri- 
oration of  the  air,  whereas  the  electric  light  offers  many 
advantages  in  churches  as  in  theatres  and  other  places 


io8  SANITATION   OF   PUBLIC   BUILDINGS. 

of  assembly.  The  reflector  ceiling  lights,  being  usually 
in  inaccessible  positions,  should  preferably  be  electric 
lights,  but  where  gas  fixtures  must  be  used,  the  jets 
should  be  lighted  by  means  of  electric  gas  lighting  con- 
trolled from  some  central  point  in  the  gallery. 

10.  Heating  and  Ventilation. — Heating  and  ventilation 
are  two  problems  of  vital  importance  in  the  case  of 
churches,  and  as  a  rule  it  is  well  to  consider  them 
together.  Until  recently,  this  subject  has  been  con- 
siderably neglected,  and  in  one  architectural  publica- 
tion on  the  building  of  churches  I  find  the  subject  of 
ventilation  not  even  mentioned.  In  another  book  on 
Church  Architecture  the  misleading  sentence  occurs: 
"the  problem  of  ventilation  is  a  comparatively  simple 
one  for  churches."  (?)  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  sub- 
ject of  ventilating  and  warming  large  halls  of  assembly 
is  quite  a  difficult  one. 

Regarding  the  heating  of  churches,  it  should  be  borne 
in  mind  that  the  persons  who  attend  the  churches 
are  usually  dressed  for  walking,  hence  a  lower  tem- 
perature seems  permissible  in  some  cases  than  is  re- 
quired in  theatres  or  concert  halls,  where  many  of  the 
people  sit  for  hours  in  full  evening  dress.  In  some 
churches,  where  services  are  held  on  Sunday  only,  it 
is  still  the  practice  not  to  warm  the  church  during  the 
week,  but  the  majority  of  churches  have  also  week -day 
services,  and  there  are  many  reasons  why  it  seems 
desirable  that  such  a  building  should  be  constantly 
warmed  during  the  winter  season.  In  the  first  place, 
cold  down  draughts  are  much  more  keenly  felt  in 
churches  which  are  heated  only  for  Sunday  service. 


CHURCH   SANITATION.  109 

Then  again,  the  plumbing  would  be  very  apt  to  freeze 
and  cause  trouble,  damage,  and  expense.  Finally,  the 
organ  of  the  church  requires  a  continuous  *  heating 
because  it  will  otherwise  immediately  get  out  of  tune. 
"It  is  not  generally  known,"  says  a  writer,  "how 
much  the  organ  in  a  church  is  affected  by  temperature. 
Ten  degrees  of  temperature  above  that  at  which  an 
organ  is  tuned  will  serve  to  introduce  the  most  hor- 
rible discord  in  an  instrument  which  had  been  per- 
fectly tuned." 

The  heating  of  churches  is  accomplished  by  means 
of  furnaces,  or  else  by  steam  or  hot- water  radiation. 
In  the  case  of  smaller  country  chapels  the  heating  is 
sometimes  done  by  means  of  stoves,  but  these  are  not 
to  be  recommended,  except  they  are  arranged  as  ven- 
tilating stoves.  If  it  were  not  for  the  requirements 
of  ventilation,  it  would  not  be  very  difficult  to  warm 
a  church  building  properly,  but  the  requirements  of 
ventilation  signify  that  large  volumes  of  fresh  air  must 
be  warmed  to  a  suitable  temperature,  before  being 
admitted  into  the  auditorium,  and  this  is  where  both 
the  difficulty  and  the  expense  begin.  In  the  case  of 
larger  buildings,  where  one  hot-air  furnace  would  not 
be  sufficient,  it  is  generally  found  to  be  more  economical 
to  arrange  for  a  system  of  direct  and  indirect  steam 
radiation,  or  for  a  "hot-blast"  system.  Hot-water 
heating  can  be  used  only  in  those  buildings  which  are 
kept  warm  during  the  entire  winter  season,  otherwise 
the  hot-water  apparatus  would  soon  freeze. 

In  all  buildings,  where  many  persons  congregate, 
the  problem  of  ventilation  should  receive  the  greatest 


HO  SANITATION   OF  PUBLIC  BUILDINGS. 

attention,  but  it  is  unfortunately  true  that  but  few 
churches  are  satisfactorily  ventilated,  while  a  good 
many  of  them  are  either  stuffy  or  draughty.  Perfect 
ventilation  would  require  the  provision  of  thirty  cubic 
feet  of  fresh  air  per  minute  per  person,  but  owing  to 
the  fact  that  a  church  is  occupied  for  a  comparatively 
short  period  of  time  it  may  seem  permissible  to  make 
a  somewhat  lower  allowance.  The  minimum  allow- 
ance should  be  six-hundred  cubic  feet  per  person  per 
hour.  This  fresh  air  should  be  taken  preferably  not 
from  near  the  ground  or  from  basement  areas,  but 
from  a  higher  point,  and  in  the  case  of  churches  the 
tower  or  steeple  is  quite  often  made  to  serve  as  an 
inlet  for  fresh  air.  The  air,  after  being  suitably  warmed, 
should  bb  then  distributed  throughout  the  auditorium, 
and  to  accomplish  this  it  is  necessary  that  it  should 
be  admitted  at  a  great  number  of  points.  Floor  regis- 
ters are  always  objectionable  and  a  good  arrangement 
is  to  locate  the  air  inlets  at  the  sides  of  the  pews. 

Besides  introducing  pure  air,  it  is  necessary  to  re- 
move the  air  which  has  been  spoiled  by  respiration, 
and  by  the  lighting  with  gas,  and  this  removal  of  the 
foul  air  can  be  accomplished  by  different  methods. 
During  cold  weather  it  does  not  seem  feasible  to  open 
the  windows  during  the  service  to  let  the  foul  air  out, 
and  it  is  necessary  to  provide  other  means.  Some  ven- 
tilation may  be  accomplished  by  means  of  vent-shafts 
or  vent-flues,  but  unless  these  are  artificially  heated 
they  will  seldom  work  well.  Where  boilers  are .  used, 
it  is  generally  feasible  to  locate  the  smoke-stack  in 
the  centre  of  a  large  brick  chimney  built  for  aspiration 


CHURCH   SANITATION.  in 

and  in  this  way  to  produce  a  constant  upward  draught. 
Other  methods  consist  in  placing  steam-pipe  coils  in 
the  flues  above  the  vent  registers  or  else  to  use  gas  jets. 
A  much  superior  system  consists  in  artificial  ventila- 
tion by  mechanical  means  and  here,  the  same  as  in  the 
case  of  theatres,  two  methods  may  be  distinguished, 
namely  the  exhaust  or  vacuum  and  the  plenum  method. 
In  the  latter  system,  the  pure  warmed  air  is  forced 
into  the  auditorium  under  a  slight  pressure.  This  has 
some  considerable  advantages,  because  in  case  of  leaky 
windows  the  leakage  is  outward  and  thus  unpleasant 
draughts,  such  as  are  common  in  the  exhaust  method, 
are  avoided.  In  addition  to  operating  such  a  system 
of  mechanical  ventilation  it  seems  desirable,  some 
hours  before  and  after  each  service,  to  flush  the  church 
with  pure  out-door  air  by  opening  all  the  available 
windows.  Ventilation  and  proper  airing  are  of  particu- 
lar importance  in  those  churches  where  more  than  one 
service  is  held  in  a  day,  especially  so  in  our  large  cities, 
where  all  kinds  and  classes  of  people — the  clean  as  well 
as  the  unwashed — congregate. 

ii.  Basements  or  Cellars. — Particular  attention  should 
be  given  to  the  basement  or  the  cellar  of  a  church, 
which  places  are  often  found  to  be  dark,  damp,  and 
musty,  and  are  at  times  made  the  receptacle  of  dis- 
carded furniture  or  other  waste  material.  When  the 
Sunday-school,  or  any  lecture-  or  meeting-room  are 
necessarily  placed  in  the  basement,  the  greatest  pre- 
cautions should  be  taken  to  secure  a  dry  and  light 
basement.  The  floor  should  in  all  cases  be  concreted 
or  even  waterproofed  with  asphalt. 


112          SANITATION  OF  PUBLIC  BUILDINGS. 

Where  toilet-rooms  are  provided,  these  are  generally 
placed  in  the  basement,  and  this  is  another  reason 
why  the  basement  requires  particular  and  constant 
attention.  Where  it  is  partly  underground,  the  win- 
dows are  as  a  rule  provided  with  areas  for  the  better 
lighting  of  the  rooms.  These  areas  should  be  kept 
thoroughly  clean,  and  those  which  occur  on  the  street 
front  of  buildings,  should  be  swept  and  flushed  with  a 
hose,  because  a  large  accumulation  of  street  dirt,  sweep- 
ings, and  litter  are  apt  to  accumulate  in  such  sunken 
areas.  It  is  never  advisable  to  open  the  cold-air  boxes 
or  air-supply  inlets  for  the  heating  apparatus  of  what- 
ever kind  at  such  areas,  but  where  they  must  necessarily 
be  so  located,  it  is  advisable  not  to  have  the  area  cess- 
pools, no  matter  how  well  trapped  they  may  be,  con- 
nected with  the  sewer. 

In  connection  with  the  Sunday-school  rooms  there 
may  be  one  or  more  cloak-rooms  for  the  outer  gar- 
ments, overshoes,  and  for  wet  umbrellas.  Some  pre- 
cautions should  be  exercised  to  avoid  either  dampness 
or  disagreeable  odors  arising  fom  such  places. 

12.  Sewerage  and  Plumbing. — The  plumbing  and  the 
sewerage  of  a  church  should,  of  course,  be  of  the  best 
kind,  constructed  with  first-class  materials  and  ar- 
ranged in  accordance  with  the  modern  rules  of  house 
drainage.  Two  dangers  exist  with  plumbing  in  churches, 
both  of  which  may  be  guarded  against  by  judicious 
management.  One  danger  is  that  some  of  the  fixtures 
will  not  be  used  much  and  hence  that  the  water-seal  in 
the  traps  may  evaporate;  the  other  danger  consists  in 
the  possible  freezing  up  of  the  plumbing  pipes  and  traps. 


CHURCH   SANITATION.  TT^ 

An  efficient  and  intelligent  church  janitor  would  have 
no  difficulty  in  dealing  with  these  problems. 

On  account  of  the  social  functions  connected  with 
church  work  it  is  often  required  to  have  a  well  equipped 
kitchen  and  a  serving-room  adjoining  the  ladies'  parlor. 
These  require  one  or  more  sinks  with  hot  and  cold 
water,  a  gas  or  coal  range,  and  possibly  a  hot-water 
boiler  or  gas-water  heater.* 

In  Baptist  churches  a  baptistry  is  always  provided 
in  connection  with  one  or  more  dressing-rooms.  This 
is  a  special  tank,  from  6  to  8  feet  long,  4  to  5  feet  wide, 
and  3  to  4  feet  deep,  intended  for  the  immersion  of 
persons.  It  may  be  constructed  of  wood  and  lined 
with  copper,  or  of  galvanized  iron,  and  it  requires  waste- 
and  overflow-pipes  and  hot  and  cold  supply-pipes, 
also  a  hot-water  heater  adapted  to  these  special  require- 
ments. In  the  case  of  wealthy  Baptist  congregations, 
the  baptistry  generally  consists  of  a  more  elaborate  mar- 
ble pool. 

In  the  arrangement  of  the  toilet-rooms,  the  general 
requirements  outlined  for  other  classes  of  buildings 
should  be  followed  and  the  chief  of  these  are  simplicity 


*  A  somewhat  novel  church  building  has  just  been  completed 
on  the  corner  of  Fifty-sixth  Street  and  Broadway  in  New  York 
City.  This  costly  structure  is  said  to  contain,  besides  the  large 
auditorium,  two  chapels,  a  score  of  Sunday-school  rooms,  men's 
club  rooms,  women's  parlors,  and  accommodates  a  total  of 
6,000  persons  at  one  time.  An  additional  parish  house  is  ten 
stories  high.  The  church  contains  also  a  museum  for  ecclesi- 
astic relics,  a  safe  deposit  vault,  and  in  the  basement  a  theatre 
stage,  with  amphitheatre,  having  seating  capacity  for  600  per- 
sons, boxes,  and  dressing  rooms 


114  SANITATION   OP  PUBLIC   BUILDINGS. 

in  arrangement,  avoidance  of  noise,  and  perfect  ven- 
tilation. 

A  larger  amount  of  plumbing  fixtures  is  usually  pro- 
vided for  in  synagogues  than  in  churches,  for  the  rea- 
son that  some  of  the  services  of  the  Hebrews  require 
the  constant  attendance  in  the  place  of  worship  during 
an  entire  day.  This  requires  separate  toilet-rooms  for 
men  and  for  women,  for  boys  and  for  girls,  in  addi- 
tion to  drinking  fountains.  It  may  be  here  pointed  out 
that  in  some  of  the  older  synagogues  of  some  European 
cities  there  are  special  purifying  baths  for  women  pro- 
vided, which  are  required  by  the  religious  rites  of  the 
orthodox  Jews. 

Many  matters  have  in  the  preceding  pages  been  merely 
hinted  at,  but  it  is  believed  that  enough  has  been  said 
to  demonstrate  that  the  health  of  congregations  demands 
a  proper  attention  to  the  subject  of  sanitation,  and 
that  indifference  to  church  hygiene  by  those  at  the 
head  of  such  institutions,  must  at  the  present  day  be 
considered  inexcusable. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

There  are  a  few  books  on  "Church  Architecture,"  but  none  of 
them  discuss  the  subject  of  "Sanitation."  Inquiry  among 
several  publishers,  failed  to  discover  any  American  book 
on  Church  Hygiene.  Neither  are  there  available  any  Ger- 
man books  on  the  subject. 


SCHOOL    SANITATION 


IV 


SCHOOL  SANITATION 

i.  Definition  of  Terms. — School  hygiene  and  school 
sanitation  are  not  to  be  considered  synonymous  terms, 
for  the  former  comprises  a  much  wider  range  of  sub- 
jects than  the  latter. 

School  hygiene  deals  with  every  possible  aspect  of 
school  life,  so  far  as  the  same  may  affect  the  health 
of  the  children ;  it  includes  subjects  such  as  the  periods 
of  study,  the  care  of  the  eyes  of  pupils,  the  posture  of 
children  in  school,  curricula  of  studies,  methods  of  teach- 
ing, school  discipline,  medical  school  inspection,  and 
school  diseases. 

School  sanitation,  on  the  other  hand,  refers  to  the 
school  building  only,  to  its  location  and  construction, 
its  equipment  and  sanitation.  School  hygiene  is  there- 
fore a  broader  term  than  school  sanitation. 

The  contents  of  this  chapter  will  be  restricted  to  the 
latter  meaning,  and  will  deal  more  particularly  with 
the  safety  and  sanitary  features  of  school  buildings. 
A  brief  resume  of  some  German  maxims  on  school  sani- 
tation, which  the  author '  published  some  years  ago, 
are  substantially  embodied  in  the  pages  of  this  chapter, 
and  form  the  basis  for  the  same. 

117 


n8  SANITATION    OF   PUBLIC   BUILDINGS. 

2.  School  Sanitation. — Everything  pertaining  to  gen- 
eral house  sanitation  is,  of  course,  applicable  to  school 
sanitation,  with  this  particular  distinction,  that  in  the 
case  of  school  buildings  we  are  providing  for  children 
whose  bodies  are  in  a  process  of  growth  and  development 
and,  for  this  reason,  are  perhaps  more  susceptible  to 
outside  causes  tending  to  affect  their  health  and  also 
more  subject  to  illness.  Growing  youth  requires  the 
best  sanitary  environment  to  guard  it  against  illness, 
because  defects  in  the  construction,  sanitation  or 
equipment  of  schools  may  injure  children  for  a  long  time, 
in  some  cases  even  for  life. 

The  importance  of  sanitary  school  buildings  for 
the  bodily  and  mental  improvement  of  children  is  being 
more  and  more  appreciated.  School  houses  differ  from 
dwelling-houses  in  having  a  very  large  number  of  children 
congregated  together  for  many  hours  each  day,  and 
this  is  another  reason  why  the  closest  attention  should 
be  given,  in  the  planning  and  construction  of  schools, 
to  their  sanitation,  ventilation,  and  means  for  cleanli- 
ness. The  largest  school-houses,  which  sometimes  hold 
from  1000  to  3000  children,  present  difficult  and  impor- 
tant hygienic  and  mechanical  problems,  which  must 
be  carefully  dealt  with. 

This  chapter  treats  of  school  buildings  in  general. 
It  disregards  entirely  the  usual  sub-divisions  of  schools 
into  primary,  grammar,  and  high  school;  the  classi- 
fication into  manual  training  schools,  polytechnic 
schools,  and  other  higher  schools  of  learning,  such  as 
seminaries,  colleges,  and  universities.  Space  also  for- 
bids dealing  separately  with  the  public  and  the  pri- 


SCHOOL   SANITATION.  119 

vate    schools;    with    boys',    girls',    and    co-educational 
schools. 

I  shall  take  up  first  the  question  of  location  and  site 
of  school  buildings;  and  after  that  I  shall  discuss  the 
building  itself,  its  plan  and  construction,  number  of 
stories,  its  safety  from  fire  and  the  disposition  of  the 
rooms.  Next  in  order  will  be  a  consideration  of  the 
school-room  proper;  and  following  it,  special  subjects 
of  interior  mechanical  equipment,  comprising  heating 
and  ventilation,  lighting,  sanitary  arrangements,  water 
supply,  school  baths,  outside  sewerage,  and  sewage 
disposal  will  be  discussed;  finally  there  are  questions 
of  management,  such  as  maintenance  of  cleanliness, 
sanitary  inspections,  together  with  some  general  sani- 
tary considerations. 

LOCATION  OR  SITE. 

3.  Choice  of  Site. — The  question  of  a  choice  of  site  for 
a  building  is  always  an  important  one,  but  for  reasons 
above  stated  it  is  particularly  so  in  the  case  of  school- 
houses.  The  site  for  a  school-building  must  be  care- 
fully chosen,  and  all  possible  drawbacks  and  disad- 
vantages must  be  examined  into  or  anticipated.  The 
site  should  be  elevated,  reasonably  level,  though  with 
sufficient  slope  on  one  or  more  sides,  if  possible,  to 
facilitate  good  drainage;  it  should  be  open,  airy,  and 
dry.  Regarding  the  size  of  a  lot  for  school  purposes, 
this  should  be  large  enough  to  allow  the  building  to 
stand  back  from  the  street  and  to  provide  plenty  of 
playground,  open  spaces,  or  yards  with  some  shade 
trees. 


120  SANITATION   OF   PUBLIC  BUILDINGS. 

4.  Area  of  School  Grounds. — The  German  standard 
provides  an  area  of  school  grounds  equivalent  to  three 
square    meters    for    every    child,    and    in    England    the 
standard  seems  to  be  about  the  same,  namely  30  square 
feet.     Thus,  for  a  school  intended  to  house  1000  pupils 
the  lot  should  measure   30,000   square  feet;    in  other 
words  it  should  be  about  300  by  100,  or  150  by  200  feet. 
A  large  lot  secures  not  only  a  recreation  ground,  gen- 
erous in  size,  but  it  also  provides  for  good  lighting  of 
the  school  rooms,  as  no  over-shadowing  from  adjoining 
buildings  can  occur. 

5.  Soil. — A  porous  soil,  such  as  sand  or  gravel,  is  the 
best.     In  all  cases  the  ground  should  be  well-drained  and 
free  from  organic  matter.     No  made  ground  or  filled-in 
lot  should  be   selected   for  school   purposes.     Swampy 
land   is   equally   out   of   the   question.     The   healthful- 
ness  of  a  school  site  is  of  so  much  importance  that 
ordinary    real    estate    considerations    should    under   no 
circumstances   govern   the   choice,    and   School   Boards 
would   do.  well,  whenever   they  have   to  make  a  selec- 
tion, to  make  it  under  the  expert  advice  of  a  practical 
sanitarian. 

6.  Surroundings. — The   surroundings    of   the   school- 
house  are  of  the  greatest  importance,  and  hence  the  ex- 
amination of  a  site  should  always  include  an  inspection 
of  the  neighboring  lots.     Noisy  surroundings  or  noxious 
manufactures    should    always    be    avoided.     A    school 
building  should  stand  in  a  nearly  central  location  in 
reference  to  the  school  population  or  the  school  district, 
but  it  should  be  placed  away  from  noise,  dust,  soot, 
smoke,  or  polluted  air.     Hence  it  should  not  be  placed 


SCHOOL   SANITATION.  121 

on  a  main  city  street,  nor  should  it  be  located  near 
industrial  establishments,  near  a  railroad  depot  or 
freight  yard.  The  quiet  side  streets  should  be  selected 
by  preference.  A  school-house  should  never  be  built 
in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  factories,  smoke-creating 
establishments,  noisy  workshops,  stables,  hotels,  mili- 
tary barracks,  or  markets,  or  near  fire-engine  houses, 
police  stations,  or  hospitals.  In  a  city  a  school-house 
should  not  be  located  adjoining  a  high  building,  as  this 
would  rob  it  of  much  necessary  light.  A  street  with 
noisy  pavement  should  also  be  avoided,  likewise  filthy 
neighborhoods,  or  open  and  filthy  yards  which  drain 
toward  the  school  grounds. 

In  cities  where  the  price  of  real  estate  is  high,  the 
choice  of  site  is  usually  very  much  restricted,  and  sani- 
tary requirements  are  difficult  to  comply  with  in  the 
larger  cities,  where  the  selection  often  becomes  very 
limited. 

For  country  school  buildings  the  neighborhood  of 
swamps,  or  of  stagnant  water,  should  be  avoided.  The 
question  of  water  supply  and  drainage  form  an  impor- 
tant consideration  when  investigating  a  site.  In  rural 
districts  a  school-house  is  often  found  to  be  located 
at  the  outskirts  of  a  village,  this  location  being  made 
necessary  by  -reason  of  the  requirement  to  place  the 
school  in  the  centre  of  the  district. 

7.  Aspect. — Regarding  the  aspect  of  the  school-house, 
the  buildings  should  be  so  placed  as  to  secure  some 
sunlight  for  all  rooms,  for  sunless  rooms  are  apt  to  be 
damp  and  cheerless.  In  Germany,  school-house  build- 
ings are  placed  as  much  as  possible,  with  regards  to  the 


122  SANITATION   OF  PUBLIC  BUILDINGS. 

points  of  the  compass,  so  that  the  windows  of  the  class- 
rooms will  face  the  northeast  or  else  the  east.  In  case 
the  rooms  are  located  on  both  sides  of  a  corridor,  the 
windows  are  made  to  face  northwest  and  southeast, 
and  no  windows  are  placed  to  the  southwest.  The  latter 
aspect  is  only  considered  admissible  for  schools  in 
which  in  the  summer  no  teaching  is  done  in  the  after- 
noon. A  northerly  aspect  avoids  the  glaring  sunlight 
during  school  hours,  and  while  it  is  cold  and  bleak  in 
winter,  it  is  good  for  the  lighting  of  the  rooms  and 
particularly  good  for  drawing-rooms.  As  a  rule,  an 
easterly,  southerly,  or  southeasterly  exposure  is  pre- 
ferred in  the  United  States,  and  the  westerly  is  con- 
sidered to  be  the  least  desirable. 

8.  Trees  on  School  Grounds. — If  the  lot  permits  of  it, 
a  school  building  should  be  set  back  on  all  sides  so  as  to 
have  a  free  air  circulation,  and  so  as  to  avoid  the  dust 
and  noise  of  the  street.     Trees  should  never  be  nearer 
than  20  or  25  feet  from  the  school  building;    if  placed 
at  a    greater    distance    than  mentioned,  they  are  ad- 
vantageous for  they  afford  shelter  from  the  sun  on  the 
playground,    and   also    because    they    form    the    best 
obtainable   ornamentation  of   the   grounds. 

9.  Beautifying  School  Grounds. — In  cities,  the  school 
grounds  are  generally  so  small  as  not  to  permit  the 
planting  of  trees,  but  in  country  schools  the  cultiva- 
tion of  trees  should  always  be  encouraged.     Suburban 
and  country  schools  often  have  their  grounds  carefully 
laid  out  with  grass  plots,  flower  beds,  and  shade  trees. 
Money  used  in  making  school  grounds  attractive  and 
beautiful  is  always  well  spent,   and  where  the  school 


SCHOOL  SANITATION.  123 

grounds  are  large  a  map  of  the  same  should  be  pre- 
pared and  a  number  of  trees  located  on  the  same,  the 
trees  being  planted  by  the  children  on  succeeding 
"arbor  days."  Such  school  yards  form  the  best  pos- 
sible place  for  nature  study;  they  teach  the  children 
the  different  kinds  of  trees  and  shrubs,  and  thus  they 
learn  at  an  early  age  how  to  care  for  them. 

10.  Playgrounds. — Playgrounds  should  be  located  on 
the  sunny  side  of  the  building,  and  should  be  dry  and 
sheltered  from   the   winds.     In  the   centre   a  pavilion 
should  be   provided,   protected   by   being  roofed   over 
but  kept  open  at  the  sides,  for  the  use  of  the  pupils 
in  case  of  stormy  weather.     The  yards  should  be  kept 
dry    and    well    drained.     Cemented    or    flagged    walks 
should  lead  to  the  principal  entrances  of  the  school, 
but  otherwise  the  playgrounds  should  be  finished  with 
lawns  or  with  soft  clean  gravel  or  cinders.     In  the  case 
of   city    school-houses,    located   in   congested    districts, 
outside  playgrounds  cannot  often  be  had,  and  in  such 
a  case  a  substitute  may  be  arranged  by  providing  play- 
grounds on  the  roof  of  the  building. 

THE  SCHOOL  BUILDING. 

According  to  Morrison,  the  essential  general  require- 
ments of  school  buildings  are:  shelter,  adequate  space, 
good  construction,  lighting,  heating,  and  ventilation, 
sanitation,  suitable  interior  equipment,  and  chaste 
decoration. 

11.  Construction. — Regarding     the     construction    of 
school-houses,  it  may  be  said,  in  general,  that   school- 
houses  should  be  built  of  the  best  and  most  durable  mate- 


I24  SANITATION   OF  PUBLIC  BUILDINGS. 

rials  and  of  thorough  and  substantial  workmanship. 
Next  to  good  construction  come  the  requirements  of 
proper  sanitation,  adequate  heating  and  ventilation 
and  correct  lighting.  A  well  constructed  building  will 
in  the  end  always  prove  economical,  for  the  reason  that 
in  this  class  of  buildings  there  is  perhaps  more  wear  and 
tear  than  in  any  other  class.  It  would  be  exceeding 
the  limits  of  this  chapter  to  discuss  in  detail  the  con- 
struction of  foundations,  of  exterior  and  partition  walls, 
of  ceiling,  roofs,  and  chimneys. 

12.  Safety   from  Fire. — Security  against  fire  should 
always  be  one  of  the  chief  considerations.     Where  so 
many  children  are  congregated,  the  danger  of  fire  or  panic 
is  always  present  and  must  be  suitably  guarded  against. 
For  this  reason  all  school-houses,  located  in  city  streets, 
should  be  built  of  brick  and  of  fire-resisting  construction, 
for   frame   structures   would  be  too  much  in  danger  of 
fire.     Isolated  school-houses  in  the  country  do  not  re- 
quire brick  or  stone  walls,  but  every  possible  precaution 
should  be  taken  to  make  them  at  least  slow-burning. 

13.  Boiler  Room. — A  school-house  should  always  be 
provided  with  a  basement   or  cellar  under  the   entire 
building.     In  this  the  boiler  and  coal  room  are  located, 
and  also  sometimes  the  play-grounds,  lavatories,  toilet- 
rooms,   and  school  baths.     The  floor  of  the  basement 
should  be  free  from  dampness,  and  be  asphalted  and 
made  waterproof. 

14.  Walls. — All  walls  of  class-rooms  should  be  smoothly 
plastered  and  the  lower  part  finished  in  hard  plaster. 
Inside  walls  of  corridors,  toilet-rooms,  cloak-rooms,  etc., 
may  be  finished  with  enameled  brick  or  tiles. 


SCHOOL   SANITATION.  125 

It  is  important  that  all  cornices  should  be  well  rounded 
and  that  there  should  be  no  moldings  or  ledges  to  catch 
dust. 

15.  Ceilings  and  Floors. — The  ceilings  should  be  strong, 
fire-proof,  and  sound-proof,  and  the  latter  requirement 
is,  of  course,  equally  true  of  the  floors.     These  should 
be  stiff,  constructed  of  an  under  floor  of  spruce,  covered 
with  narrow  oak  or  other  hardwood  boards;    the  floors 
should  be  without  vibration  and  with  deafening  between 
the    joists.     The    floors    should    be    either    painted    or 
well  oiled.     All  corners  between-  floors  and  walls  should 
l>e  finished  with  round  coves.     Wooden  floors  for  base- 
ment rooms  should  be  laid  on  sleepers,  bedded  in  cement. 

16.  Entrances. — The  entrances  should  have  covers  or 
large  protected  vestibules,   where   those   children,   who 
arrive  early,   may  stand  protected  frohi  the  weather. 
Exposed   entrance   steps   should   be    avoided,    as   they 
'become  dangerous  in  winter  time,  when  covered  with 
ice.     The  entrance  doors  should  always  open  outward, 
as  should   also  the  doors  of  the  class-rooms. 

17.  Corridors. — The  corridors  should  not  be  too  narrow, 
particularly  when  the  pupils'  wardrobes  are  located  in 
them.     A  desirable  width  is  from  10  to  12  feet.     They 
should  have  floors  of  wood,  covered  with  linoleum,  or 
else  the  much  better  tile  floors.     All  corridors  should 
be    properly    heated    and    well    lighted.     Where    class- 
rooms are  located  on  both  sides  of  a  corridor,  windows 
should  be  put  at  each  end. 

18.  Staircases. — The  chief  requirements  of  the  stairs 
are  that  they  should  be  fireproof,  strong,  and  safely  built, 
well  lighted  and  preferably  enclosed  by  fire  walls;    the 


126  SANITATION   OF  PUBLIC  BUILDINGS. 

open  well  stairs  should  be  avoided.  There  should  be 
no  winding  steps  and  each  long  flight  of  stairs  should 
be  interrupted  with  at  least  one  landing.  There  should 
be  a  rail  on  either  side  of  the  stairs  and  very  wide  stairs 
should  have  a  centre  rail.  In  large  buildings  there 
should  always  be  at  least  two  staircases. 

19.  Exits. — The  corridors,  stairs,  exit  doors,  and  exits 
should  be  planned  so  ample  as  to  permit  of  the  entire 
emptying  of  the  school  in  from  3  to  4  minutes. 

20.  Disposition  of  Class-rooms. — The  planning  or  the 
disposition  of  the  rooms  of  the  school  building  depends 
upon  many  considerations,   and  chiefly  upon  whether 
the  building  is  to  be  erected  for  both  boys  and  girls, 
or  only  for  children  of  one  sex. 

In  general,  a  symmetrical  plan  will  be  the  best  and 
there  should  be  a  corridor  running  the  length  of  the 
building,  with  the  classroom  located  at  one  or  both 
sides  of  the  same.  There  should  be  a  sufficient  num- 
ber of  staircases  for  the  safe  and  quick  exit  of  the 
children  in  case  of  a  panic  or  fire. 

21.  Number  of  Floors. — The  number  of  floors  depends 
upon  the  requirements  and  on  the   number  of  pupils 
to   be    accommodated.     It   should   be     said,    however, 
that  buildings  of  more  than  three  stories  are  not  to 
be  approved,  for  the  stair  climbing  is  injurious,   par- 
ticularly  to   the   older   girls,    and   there   is   always   the 
danger  of  loss  of  life,  in  case  of  a  panic  or  fire.     In 
congested  city  districts,  such  as  the  east  side  of  New 
York,  one  may  of  sheer  necessity  be  obliged  to  put  up 
a  ten-story  building,  as  recently  planned,  but  on  gen- 
eral  principles   such   a   plan   can   never   be    approved, 


SCHOOL  SANITATION.  §  127 

for  even  with  the  largest  and  safest  elevators  it  is  not 
clear  how  a  school-house  containing  5000  pupils  could 
be  emptied  sufficiently  quick  in  case  of  an  outbreak 
of  fire.  It  is  bad  enough  to  have  a  city  made  ugly 
by  the  erection  of  commercial  monstrosities  in  the 
shape  of  skyscraping  office  buildings  and  hotels.  Sky- 
scraper schools  are,  in  my  judgment,  hazardous  and 
ill-conceived,  and  the  proposition  to  erect  them  should 
be  dismissed  as  impracticable  and  absolutely  dangerous. 
For  suburban  and  country  schools  it  is  decidedly 
better  to  limit  the  number  of  stories  to  two  or  three,  in 
which  latter  case  the  important  class-rooms  are  located 
in  the  lower  stories,  whereas  the  top  floor  may  con- 
tain the  assembly  hall,  or  may  be  used  for  a  gymnasium, 
or  for  classes  in  manual  and  physical  training. 

22.  Basement. — A  high,  well-lighted  basement  is  es- 
sential ;    its  clear  height  should  never  be  less  than  from 
10    to    12    feet.     A    well    constructed    basement,    with 
windows  half  above  the  grade  line,  and  with  a  proper 
air  supply,   should  be   as   sanitary   as   any   other  part 
of  the  building.     If  the  basement  is  dry  and  well  lighted, 
a  part  of  it  can  be  used  for  recreation  or  playrooms,  for 
cooking  classes,  for  the  gymnasium  and  for  some  school 
baths  for  children  of  both  sexes.     There  should  also  be 
a  janitor's  workroom.     The  boiler  and  coal  room  floors 
should    always   be   well   cemented   or   finished   with   a 
brick    pavement.     These    rooms    should    be    enclosed 
with  brick  fire  walls,   and  the  doors  should  be  stout 
wooden   doors,   lined  on  both  sides  with  tin. 

23.  Fire   Escapes. — In    buildings  of  more    than  two 
stories,  outside  fire  stairs,  not  merely  fire  ladders,  should  be 


128         SANITATION  OF  PUBLIC  BUILDINGS. 

provided  in  addition  to  the  inside  staircases,  but  they 
must  be  properly  designed  and  constructed,  and  should 
always  be  covered  in  from  the  weather  so  that  they 
can  be  used  by  the  children  in  times  of  danger. 

24.  Sewerage. — The  building  should  be  well  sewered 
and  drained.     All  plumbing  should  be  the  best  obtaina- 
ble, both  in  workmanship  and  in  the  character  of  the 

^  fixtures.  Regarding  its  general  arrangement,  the  same 
rules  of  drainage  that  are  used  for  other  buildings  apply. 
In  the  city,  the  school-house  should  have  connection 
with  a  city  sewer,  whereas  for  country,  school  buildings, 
not  within  reach  of  a  sewer,  other  safe  and  sanitary 
methods  are  now-a-days  available,  a  brief  reference  to 
which  will  be  made  further  on. 

25.  Assembly  and  Special  Rooms. — In  addition  to  the 
number  of  class-rooms  required,  there  should  be  a  large 
assembly-room,  capable  of   seating  the   entire   number 
of  pupils,  also  teachers'  rooms,  an  office  for  the  prin- 
cipal,   teachers'    toilet-rooms    and    specially    well-ven- 
tilated   cloak-rooms    for    the    pupils.     The  principal's 
room  should  be  located  central  and  convenient  of  access. 
Regarding  the  assembly-room,  which  is  often  located 
on  the  top  floor,  it  has  been  suggested  that  the  best 
position  for  the  same  is  on  the  ground  floor,  in  a  central 
rear  wing  of  the  school.     From  the  point  of  view  of 
danger,   in   case   of   a   panic,   the   suggestion   deserves 
much  consideration. 

In  high  schools,  provision  should  be  made,  besides 
class-rooms,  for  physical  and  chemical  laboratories. 
They  should  be  fitted  up  with  numerous  shelves  and 
demonstration  tables  and  should  be  piped  for  water, 


SCHOOL  SANITATION.  129 

gas,  steam,  compressed  air,  and  waste-pipes.  In 
chemical  laboratories,  special  gas-hoods  with  exhaust 
flues  must  be  provided  for  the  removal  of  noxious 
gases. 

26.  Exterior  of  Building. — The  exterior  of  a  building, 
devoted  to  the  causes  of  education,  should  be  well-pro- 
portioned,  dignified   but  plain,   and   expressive  of  the 
character   of   the   work   for   which   it   is    erected.     All 
needless  and  meaningless  ornamentation  of  the  build- 
ing  should   be   avoided.     If   some   money   is   available 
for  beautifying  a  school,   I   hold  that  it  is  preferable 
to  spend  it  on  inside  decoration  and  for  the  improve- 
ment  and  beautifying  or  the  grounds. 

27.  Interior  Decoration. — Appropriate,  simple,  and  re- 
fined decorations  should  be  used  to   adorn  the  class- 
rooms  and   the   principal   corridors.  The   walls   should 
be  rendered  attractive  by  hanging  on  them  some  framed 
pictures,   photographs,    color   prints,    or   photogravures 
of  objects  relating  to  history,  the  fine  arts,  the  natural 
sciences  or  to  landscapes.'    There  should  also  be  some 
good  topographical  or  physical  wall  maps  of  the  prin- 
cipal countries  of  the  world,  also  a  good-sized  globe.     A 
few  plaster  casts  of  well-known  sculptures,  some  vases, 
and  flower  pots,  a  bookcase  with  choice  books  of  refer- 
ence, histories,  cyclopedias, — all  these  help,  more  than 
anything  else,  to  adorn  the  school  interior. 

Carpets,  upholstered  furniture,  lace  curtains,  draperies 
or  heavy  portieres  are  out  of  place  in  a  school,  and 
objectionable  from  a  sanitary  point  of  view. 


130  SANITATION  OF  PUBLIC  BUILDINGS. 

THE  SCHOOL-ROOM. 

28.  Shape    and    Dimensions    of     Class-rooms. — The 

school-room  forms  the  unit  in  planning  a  school  building, 
much  the  same  as  a  ward  forms  the  unit  in  a  hospital. 
A  school  building  should  be  considered  as  a  number 
of  class-rooms,  properly  arranged  and  connected  by 
means  of  the  halls  and  stairs  with  the  entrances  and 
exits,  rather  than  as  a  whole  building  cut  up  into  a 
number  of  rooms.  By  this,  statement  I  mean  to  em- 
phasize the  fact  that  the  shape  and  the  dimensions  of 
the  school-room  are  all  important,  and  that  in  order 
to  attain  perfection,  it  is  necessary  to  determine  these 
first,  rather  than  to  determine  the  size  of  the  building 
and  afterwards  to  leave  it  to  chance  to  get  class-rooms 
of  a  shape  and  size  as  they  may  happen  to  come. 

Numerous  attempts  have  been  made,  by  writers  on 
school  sanitation,  to  determine  the  best  dimensions  for 
a  class-room.  A  standard  size  necessarily  depends 
upon  numerous  considerations,  such  as  lighting,  ven- 
tilation, heating,  physical  requirements,  needs  and 
capacities  of  children  and  teachers. 

29.  Standard  Shape. — In  general  shape,  a  class-room 
should  be  oblong  rather  than  square,   and   the   desks 
should  be  so  placed  that  the  aisles  between  them  run 
the  long  way,  in  other  words,  longer  classes  are  better 
than  wide  classes.     In  the  interest  of  the  eye-sight  and 
of  the  hearing  of  the  scholars,  and  on  the  other  hand 
of  the  lungs  and  vocal  organs  of  the  teachers  it  is  ad- 
visable not  to  exceed  certain  maximum  dimensions  of 
length,  width  or  depth  and  height.     In  the  interest  of 


SCHOOL   SANITATION.  131 

the  general  control  of  discipline  by  the  teachers  it  is 
likewise  to  be  recommended  to  limit  the  sizes  of  rooms 
and  the  number  of  children  in  one  class  to  about  45 
pupils.  Experienced  teachers  hold  the  view  that  a 
class  of  50,  60,  or  even  more  pupils  is  very  hard  to 
control. 

30.  Length. — The  length  of  a  school  room  is  best  deter- 
mined by  the  distance  at  which  an  ordinary  voice  can 
be  clearly  heard,  and  likewise  by  the  distance  at  which 
ordinary  blackboard  writing  can  be  seen  by  the  normal 
eye  of  the  pupil.     This  distance  is  variously  assumed 
to  be  from  28  to  32  feet. 

31.  Width. — The  width  or  depth  of  the  room  is  also  of 
much    importance    and    depends    primarily    upon    the 
height  of  the  top  of  the  windows,     Assuming  that  day- 
light comes  only  from  the  left  side  of  the  pupil,  Ger- 
man rules  require  that  the   depth  should  not  exceed 
two  and  one-half  times  the  height  of  the  window  top 
above  the  plane  of  the  desks.     In  Europe,  class-rooms 
are  generally  limited  to  30  feet  in  length,  in  the  United 
States  to  32  feet  and  the  width  varies  from  20  to  28 
feet,   depending  somewhat  upon   the   height.     A  good 
proportion  between  the  length   and  the   width  of  the 
room  is  from  3  to  2.     The  so-called  long  rooms,  in  which 
the  proportion  of  length  to  width  is  as  4  to  3,  and  in 
which  the   desks  stand   parallel   to   the   short   sides  of 
the  room,  are  the  most  desirable  from  a  sanitary  point 
of  view.     Square  rooms  are  only  admissible  in  the  case 
of  a  smaller  number  of  scholars.      * 

32.  Height. — A  certain  minimum  height  is  necessary  in 
the  interest  of  good  ventilation  and  good  lighting,  and 


132  SANITATION   OF  PUBLIC  BUILDINGS. 

this  is  fixed  in  Europe  at  about  3!  to  4  meters;  in  the 
United  States  the  average  height  is  from  13  to  13  J 
feet. 

33.  Floor  Space. — There  are  two  other  important  con- 
siderations regarding  the  proper  ventilation  and  the 
avoidance  of  crowding  in  school-rooms,  namely,  the 
area  of  the  floor  space  and  the  cubic  space  assigned  to 
each  pupil.  Some  rules  require  15  square  feet  of  floor 
space  and  200  cubic  feet  of  air  space  per  pupil,  and 
with  a  room  30  feet  long,  25  feet  wide,  and  13  feet  high, 
this  would  limit  the  number  of  pupils  to  48,  For  54 
pupils  a  room  should  be  33  feet  long,  25  feet  wide, 
13  feet  high,  giving  200  cubic  feet  and  i6J  square 
feet  to  each  pupil.  The  best  United  States  schools  pro- 
vide 1 6  square  feet  and  216  cubic  feet  for  each  pupil. 
In  Europe,  the  requirements  of  various  governments 
are  that  there  should  be  from  .85  to  1.50  square  meters 
(9  to  1 6  square  feet)  for  each  pupil. 

34.  Cubic  Space. — Requirements,  such  as  are  usually 
made  for  hospitals,  cannot  be  applied  to  class-rooms,  " 
and  in  consideration  of  the  shorter  space  of  time  in 
which  the  pupils  are  confined  in  a  class  the  cubic  space 
is  made  smaller  and  is  usually  assumed  at  from  4  to  5 
cubic  metres   (141   to    177   cubic  feet)   for  small,   and 
from  6  to  7  cubic  metres  (211  to  247  cubic  feet)  for 
older  pupils. 

35.  Floors  of  Class-rooms. — A  few  more  words  should 
be  said  about  the  sanitary  requirements  of  the  floors, 
walls,  and  ceilings  of  the  class-rooms.     The  floors  should 
be  free  from  dust  and  non-absorbent,  and  also  good 
non-conductors  of  heat  and  sound.     Hard  wood  floors 


SCHOOL  SANITATION.  133 

are  the  best,*  but  are  necessarily  expensive.  As  a  rule, 
pine  or  spruce  floors  must  be  used,  and  should  be  finished 
smooth  and  stained  or  oiled. 

36.  Walls  of  Class-rooms. — The  walls  of  a  class-room 
should  be  of  a  light  color-  so  as  to  reflect  light  without 
causing  any  disagreeable  glare.     A  light  shade  of  blue, 
gray  or  green  paint  is  the  best  and  should  be  renewed 
frequently.     The  ceiling  should  be  finished  in  a  slightly 
lighter   color   than  the  walls.     Plastered   walls   should 
be  painted  with  oil  colors  at  least  to  a  height  of  six 
feet. 

37.  Doors. — All  class-rooms  should  have  the  doors  hung 
so  as  to  open  outward.     Transoms  should  be  provided 
over  the  doors. 

38.  Lighting  by  Windows. — Regarding  the  lighting  of 
school-rooms  by  windows,  the  first  requirement  is  that 
the  windows   should  reach  to   nearly   the   ceiling   and 
have   nearly    square   tops;  the   second   requirement   is 
that  the  light  should  come  principally  from  the  left 
side   of   pupil.     It   is   best   to    provide   windows    only 
on  one  side  of  a  class-room,  but  some  well-lighted  school- 
rooms have  been  consructed  which  have  windows  on 
two  sides  at  right  angles.     Windows  on  opposite  sides 
of  a  room  are  always  bad.     A  good  rule  is  to  provide 
at  least  .15  square  meters  (1.6  square  feet  or  233  square 
inches)   of  window  surface  for  each  pupil.     Some  au- 
thorities require  from  300  to  350  square  inches  of  win- 
dow-glass   for    each    pupil.     Another    rule    frequently 
met  with  is  that  the  windows  should  aggregate  in  area 
from  i  to  £  of  the  floor  space  of  the  room ;  but  in  many 
of  the  older  schools  this  proportion  is  only  as  i  in  10 


134  SANITATION   OF  PUBLIC  BUILDINGS. 

Windows  should  be  wide,  with  large  panes,  and 
with  glass  of  good  quality,  and  they  should  always  reach 
to  within  six  inches  of  the  ceiling.  Arched  windows 
should  be  avoided,  because  they  reduce  the  area  of 
the  upper  part  of  windows,  which  from  the  point  of 
view  of  lighting  is  of  the  greatest  importance.  Some 
recommend  spacing  the  windows  close  together,  with 
large  piers  at  the  end  of  the  room,  while  others  prefer 
an  even  distribution,  in  which  case  the  piers  should  be 
kept  as  narrow  as  possible.  The  lower  half  of  the 
window  sash  should  have  frosted  or  opaque  glass  and 
the  window-sills  should  be  placed  from  4  to  5  feet 
above  the  floor.  Where  a  school-house  is  not  set  back 
from  the  building  line,  the  lighting  of  the  rooms  will 
depend  much  upon  the  width  of  the  street  and  the 
height  of  buildings  on  the  opposite  side. 

39.  Direction  of  Light — Position  of  Windows. — Re- 
garding the  direction,  from  which  the  light  should  come, 
all  authorities  are  agreed  that  it  should  not  come  from 
the  front  or  the  right.  Authorities  are  also  agreed 
that  it  is  best  that  it  should  come  from  the  left,  but  as 
to  light  coming  from  the  rear  various  writers  seem  to 
differ.  Light  from  behind  is  not  quite  as  bad  as  right- 
hand  light,  but  in  the  interest  of  the  teacher,  who  would 
have  to  face  such  windows,  it  cannot  be  recommended. 
Light  from  directly  in  front  is  very  disagreeable,  trying 
and  injurious  to  the  eyes,  whereas  the  light  from  the 
left  side  seems  to  be  free  from  disadvantages.  Light 
directly  from  above  is  particularly  suitable  for  draw- 
ing-rooms and  for  laboratories. 

This  question  of  the  proper  lighting  of  school-rooms 


SCHOOL   SANITATION.  135 

is  one  which  it  is  impossible  to  go  into  at  great  length 
in  the  space  of  a  single  chapter,  but  it  is  of  the  greatest 
importance  for  the  healthy  maintenance  of  the  eye- 
sight of  the  pupils.  In  Germany  it  has  been  proven, 
by  numerous  examinations  of  pupils'  eyes,  that  near- 
sightedness  is  of  frequent  occurrence  in  schools,  also 
that  it  increases  in  frequency  and  in  degree  in  the 
higher  classes. 

Wall  maps,  drawings,  and  charts  should  be  so  hung 
that  they  may  be  visible  from  every  seat  in  the  class. 
Children,  whose  eyesight  is  defective,  should  be  given 
seats  in  the  front  rows  of  desks.  Reading  and  writing, 
during  twilight  or  on  dark  days,  when  the  class-room 
is  insufficiently  lighted,  should  be  avoided.  Those  les- 
sons which  require  much  use  of  the  eyes,  should  be 
given  during  the  lightest  hours  of  the  day. 

40.  Window  Shades. — The  windows  should  be  provided 
with  curtains  or  shades,  which  intercept  and  moderate 
the  direct  sunlight  or  a  strong  reflected  light,  both  of 
which  are  injurious  to  the  eyes.     Roller  shades  are  best 
arranged  so  as  to  roll  both  from  the  top  down  and  from 
the  bottom  up.     The   color  of  the  shades  should  not 
be  too  dark,  and  it  is  found  that  a  light  buff  or  cream 
color  is  the  best. 

41.  Blackboards. — The  blackboards  should  have  good 
light,   and   must    have  a   perfectly    black    dull    surface 
without   any  gloss. 

42.  School  Seats  and  Desks.  —Another  subject  of  para- 
mount  importance   is   the   proper   seating,   the   proper 
position  of  the  bodies  of  the  children,  and  the  correct 
distance  of  the  eye  from  the  writing  or  reading  book. 


136  SANITATION   OF   PUBLIC   BUILDINGS. 

With  this  in  view,  numerous  types  of  hygienic  school 
desks  and  seats  have  been  advocated.  At  the  Hygienic 
Exhibition  of  1883  at  Berlin,  more  than  70  models  were 
exhibited.  Seats  and  desks  of  different  sizes  and 
heights  are  provided  in  the  classes  to  accommodate 
pupils  of  varying  size.  A  bad  posture  may  ultimately 
lead  to  permanent  lateral  curvature  of  the  spine,  or 
cause  impairment  of  the  eyesight.  A  cramped  position 
will  tend  to  injure  the  chest,  lungs,  and  the  abdominal 
organs.  All  school  desks  should  be  designed  with  slope 
and  so  built  that  they  may  be  readily  cleaned.  There 
is  no  question  that  single  desks  and  single  seats,  which 
is  the  prevailing  system  in  American  schools,  are  the 
best,  and  they  should  always  be  provided  where  economy 
in  space  or  in  cost  of  equipment  does  not  forbid  them. 
The  seats  should  be  placed  as  near  as  possible  to  the 
windows;  the  distance  of  the  farthest  seat  should  not 
be  more  than  two  or  two  and  one-half  times  the  height 
of  the  top  of  window  above  the  desk  level. 

43.  Wardrobes. — It  is  necessary,  for  the  preservation 
of  order,  to  provide  wardrobes,  or  coat  rooms,  in  which 
the  pupils  may  keep  their  overcoats,  hats,  rubber  shoes, 
and  umbrellas.  These  should  always  be  lighted,  warmed, 
well  ventilated  and  have  the  walls  finished  in  some 
non-absorbent  material,  suitable  for  cleaning  and  dis- 
infection. The  cloak-rooms  should  have  hooks  for 
coats  and  hats,  shelves  for  rubbers,  and  racks  for 
umbrellas,  with  troughs  for  the  drippings. 

It  is  best  if  a  separate  cloak-room  is  provided  for 
each  class,  though  limited  floor  space  often  prevents 
such  an  arrangement.  The  wardrobes  may  be  arranged 


SCHOOL   SANITATION.  137 

inside  of  the  class-room,  but  this  is  a  decidedly  bad  prac-. 
tice,  or  else  they  may  be  placed  in  the  corridors,  or  in 
large  closets  or  cloak-rooms  adjoining  the  class-rooms, 
which  latter  forms  the  best  arrangement.  It  is  not 
generally  considered  advisable  to  provide  one  congre- 
gate wardrobe  for  the  entire  school  in  the  basement. 

44.  Accident  Room. — In  large  schools  it  is  advisable  to 
reserve  a  small  room  as  an  accident  room,  in  which 
children  which  are  suddenly  taken  sick  may  be  kept 
until  they  recover  or  until  they  can  be  sent  home. 

Teachers  should  be  made  familiar  with  the  measures 
to  be  taken  in  case  of  accidents,  injuries,  or  sudden 
illness.  The  principal  should  see  that  each  school  is 
provided  with  a  surgical  emergency  case,  containing 
the  most  necessary  articles  for  rendering  first  aid  to 
the  injured.  Printed  directions  of  what  to  do — and 
what  not  to  do — in  case  of  emergency,  until  the  sur- 
geon's or  physician's  arrival,  should  be  conspicuously 
hung  up  in  every  school-house. 

HEATING  AND  VENTILATION. 

45.  Systems  of  Heating. — The  method  of  warming  a 
school-house   is   determined   primarily   by   the   number 
of  rooms  to  be  heated;    it  is  likewise  dependent  upon 
considerations  of  convenience  and  economy. 

As  is  well  known,  we  may  distinguish  in  general 
between  individual  or  separate,  and  central  or  general, 
systems  of  heating.  The  separate  heating  is  accom- 
plished by  means  of  stoves  placed  in  each  of  the  class- 
rooms, whereas  in  central  heating  we  deal  with  only 
one  or  several  fires  located  centrally  in  the  cellar  or 


138  SANITATION    OF   PUBLIC   BTTILDTNGS. 

basement.  In  the  latter  case,  the  system  of  heating 
may  be  either  by  means  of  warm-air  furnaces,  or  by 
steam  or  hot  water,  and  in  these  again  the  heating 
may  be  either  by  the  direct  or  by  the  indirect  method. 
The  danger  from  fire  increases  in  a  building  with  the 
number  of  fires  required  for  warming,  hence  the  con- 
centration of  the  heating  apparatus  in  one  place  is 
much  to  be  preferred. 

46.  Heating  by  Stoves. — The  local  heating  of  school- 
rooms  is   practically   carried   out   only   in   the   case   of 
the  smallest  country  school  houses  having  only  a  few 
rooms;      in  such  buildings  the  method   is  economical, 
because  the  first  cost  of  a  number  of  stoves  is  much 
less  than  the  outlay   for   a  central  plant,   but  on  the 
other  hand  there  are  a  number  of   drawbacks,  amongst 
which  are  the  attendance  which  the  many  fires  require, 
the  bringing  in  of  the  fuel  and  the  incidental  disturbance 
of  the  lessons,  the  space  required  by  the  stoves  in  the 
class-rooms,  the  dirt,  which  comes  with  the  ashes  and 
soot,  and  the  difficulty  of  introducing  pure  air.     Heat- 
ing by   gas   stoves   has   been   tried   to   a   considerable 
extent  in  Germany,  and  while  it  is  very  cleanly  and 
convenient,  it  necessarily  costs  from  40  to  50%  more 
in  fuel  than  heating  by  wood  or  coal. 

47.  Furnace  Heating. — For  buildings  having  from  4  to 
8  rooms,  furnace  heating  is  the  usual  method.     It  is  a 
method  which  is  cheap  and  which  can  be  made   sanitary 
if  a  proper  air  supply  and  cold  air  box  are  provided,  and 
if  attention  is  given  to  the  degree  of  humidity  in  the 
air.     The  furnaces  must  be  large  enough  so  they  do 
not  overheat  the  air,  rendering  it  dry  and  unbreathable. 


SCHOOL   SANITATION.  139 

In  the  better  systems,  special  mixing  dampers  are  pro- 
vided, so  that  the  air  can  be  tempered  at  will  from  the 
class-rooms  in  case  of  mild  weather,  without  the  neces- 
sity of  shutting  off  the  fresh  air  supply  entirely.  The 
limitations  of  furnaces  are  caused  by  the  fact  that 
warm  air  will  not  readily  travel  horizontally  for  long 
distances,  and  that  during  windy  and  cold  weather  an 
unequal  distribution  of  heat  results,  owing  to  the  fact 
that  some  of  the  hot-air  flues  will  act  better  than  others. 

48.  Steam   Heating. — Where  a  school-house  contains 
more  than  8  rooms,  a  steam  plant  begins  to  show  substan- 
tial advantages.     The  heating  should  be  accomplished 
with  low  pressure  steam  and  preferably  by  indirect  radia- 
tion, which  involves  the  placing  of  a  sufficient  number  of 
heat-radiating   stacks  at   the   bottom  of  the  warm-air 
flues.     Fresh    air    conduits    should    be    provided  which 
supply  these  heating  stacks  and  the  air  should  be  drawn 
from   pure   outdoor   sources.     Well   designed,    indirect 
low-pressure   steamheating   systems   have  proven  very 
satisfactory.     Thermostatic  control  of  the  temperature 
of  the  air  in  the  class-rooms  is  much  to  be  desired. 

49.  Hot-water  Heating. — Indirect  hot-water  heating  is 
a  very  excellent  system,  but  it  costs  more  than  steam- 
heating  and  is  not  used  to  the  same  extent.     The  pre- 
caution should  always  be  observed   not   to   cause  the 
class-rooms    to    be    overheated;    it   is   usually    recom- 
mended to  consider  from  66  to  68  degrees  Fahr.  as  the 
maximum  allowable  temperature.     The  corridors,  stairs, 
and  wardrobes  should  likewise  be  moderately  heated. 

50.  Heating  System  to  be  Designed  by  Experts. — I  can- 
not do 'better  than  to  quote  from  the  able  treatise  by 


u 

OF  THE 


140  SANITATION   OF   PUBLIC   BUILDINGS. 

Mr.  Edmund  M.  Wheelwright,  of  Boston,  on  "School 
Architecture,"  the  following  paragraph  referring  to 
this  subject: 

"An  architect  should  be  expected  to  so  plan  a  building  that 
radical  changes  in  construction  are  not  required  to  admit  the 
satisfactory  installation  of  a  system  for  heating  and  ventil- 
ation; but  few  architects  have  had  the  technical  training, 
coupled  with  the  special  experience,  which  warrants  them  in 
designing  such  a  system  without  consultation  with  an  en- 
gineer whose  interest  in  the  work  is  not  commercial.  Where 
a  system  has  been  almost  paralleled  in  a.  former  building,  con- 
structed with  such  expert  assistance,  an  experienced  archi- 
tect, if  he  has  an  honest  and  competent  contractor,  may  ac- 
complish a  fairly  good  result;  but,  even  under  such  condi- 
tions the  work  would  generally  be  brought  to  a  nicer  conclu- 
sion if  an  expert  were  employed. 

"Where  a  competent  expert  makes  the  plans  and  specifi- 
cations and  supervises  the  construction  of  such  a  system,  all 
competitors  for  the  work  are  put  upon  an  equal  footing;  and 
the  expert's  compensation  will  be  off -set  to  the  owner,  if  not 
by  the  first  cost,  certainly  by  the  greater  economy  in  running 
and  maintaining  the  plant,  and  its  greater  efficiency  above 
that  of  a  system  installed  by  the  lowest  commercial  bidder 
who  uses  his  own  plans  and  specifications.  Expert  service  is 
rendered  primarily  for  the  client's  benefit  and  if  the  client  is 
unwilling  to  pay  for  such  service,  the  choice  of  a  system  based 
upon  commercial  competition  is  all  that  he  can  fairly  expect 
his  architect  to  furnish."* 

Not  only  should  the  heating  apparatus  for  a  large 
school  be  designed  by  an  expert  engineer,  but  the  steam 
boilers  should  be  managed  by  a  trained  engineer  assisted 
by  experienced  firemen. 

*  The  plea,  so  forcefully  presented  in  the  above  quotation 
by  a  well-known  architect  in  favor  of  expert  engineering  ser- 
vices, is  also  applicable  in  its  entirety  to  the  sanitary  and  hy- 
draulic installation  of  schools  as  well  as  of  other  buildings. 


SCHOOL   SANITATION.  141 

51.  Ventilation. — The  proper  and  ample  ventilation  of 
the  class-rooms  is  one  of  the  essential  requirements  of 
school  sanitation.     It  is  a  sanitary  problem  of  prime 
importance,  but  being  so  closely  connected  with   heat- 
ing, the  ventilating  system  is  usually  designed  or  carried 
out  by  heating  engineers.     Ventilation  is  accomplished 
both  by  natural  and  by  artificial  methods. 

52.  Air  Flushing. — Whether  artificial  systems  of  ven- 
tilation are  provided  or  not,  it  is  always  desirable  that 
each  room  should  be  flushed  with  pure  air  just  before 
the.  school   commences   and   also   during   each  recesss. 
During  the  recitations  windows  should  be  kept  closed 
to  exclude  the  street  noise  and  to  prevent  dangerous 
draughts  on  the  pupils.     All  scholars  should  leave  the 
class  after  the  lessons  and  then  the  windows  and  doors 
should  be  opened  for  a  few  minutes  and,  this  should  be 
done  not  only  in  the  summer  time  but  in  the  winter 
as  well. 

53.  Requirements  as  Regards  Air  Supply. — During  the 
school  hours  the  air  of  the  room  should  be  changed  sev- 
eral times  per  hour;   here  it  is  where  the  requirements 
of  sanitation  sometimes  conflict  with  those  of  economy 
in   construction    and    in   management    of   the   heating 
apparatus.     It  is  suggested  by  sanitarians  that   2000 
cubic  feet  of  fresh  pure  air  should  be  supplied  to  each 
pupil  per  hour,  and  in  Massachusetts  the  requirement 
specifies    1800    cubic   feet.     This   large   volume   of   air 
must  be  taken  from  a  pure  source  at  an  intake,  located 
preferably  at  a  point  several  feet  above  the  ground, 
away  from  the  dust  of  the  street  and  not  too  near  the 
toilet-rooms.     The  air  should  never  be  taken  from  the 


142  SANITATION   OF  PUBLIC  BUILDINGS. 

cellar.  The  fresh  air  must  be  suitably  warmed  in 
winter  time  and  be  distributed  uniformly  throughout 
the  class-rooms  in  such  a  way  that  no  annoying  drafts 
will  occur.  In  the  best  ventilated  schools  the  fresh  air 
is  suitably  filtered  before  being  warmed. 

54.  Removal  of  Sources  of  Air  Contamination. — All 
sources    of   air    contamination    within    the    class-rooms 
should  be  avoided  or  removed.     This  is  all-important 
and  without  this  measure  the  best  ventilating  system 
may  be  a  failure.     This  requirement  involves  the  placing 
of  school  wardrobes  for  the  outer  garments,  as  stated 
heretofore,    outside   of   the   class-rooms.     I   shall   point 
out,   in  speaking  of  school  baths,   that  unclean  bodies 
and  unwashed  undergarments  are  among  the  most  fruit- 
ful sources  of  bad  air,  and  hence  it  follows  that  nothing 
will  tend  more  to  secure  ventilation  in  the  class-rooms, 
than  to  arrange  a  number  of  school  baths  and  to  give 
the  children  the  opportunity,  alternately  to  derive  the 
benefits  incident  thereto. 

55.  Removal  of  Foul  Air. — In  ventilation  it  is  not  suffi- 
cient to  introduce  pure  air  in  ample  quantities,  but  the 
foul  air  of  the  room  must  be  constantly  removed.     This 
is    accomplished    in    school-houses    either    by    natural 
means,  such  as  the  difference  of  temperature  between 
the  exhaust  flues  and  the  outer  air,  or  else  by  means 
of  mechanical  appliances,  such  as  exhaust  fans.     This 
is  not  the  place  to  discuss  in  detail  the  subject  of  the 
plenum  and  vacuum  systems  of  ventilation.     Ventila- 
tion by  means  of  mechanical  appliances  is  always  ex- 
pensive, as  it  calls  for  an  elaborate  system  which  would 
doubtless  secure  the  very  best  of  results,  but  it  is  be- 


SCHOOL   SANITATION.  143 

lieved  that  in  most  cases  the  satisfactory  ventilation  of 
class-rooms  can  be  accomplished  by  means  of  ventila- 
ating  flues  artificially  heated  to  create  a  constant  draft. 

56.  Ventilation  of  Toilet-rooms. — The  ventilation  of 
the  toilet-rooms  is  of  particular  importance,  and  the  ex- 
haust drafts  for  these  should  be  sufficiently  strong  to 
insure  that  the  air  from  the  water-closets  and  urinal 
fixtures  will  at  no  time  pass  into  other  parts  of  the 
school. 

57.  Air    Moistening  and  Temperature   Control. — Re- 
garding the  humidity  of  the  air  in  the  school  room,  this 
should  not  be  less  than  40,  nor  more  than  60  per  cent. 
Where   class-rooms    are   heated   by    a   central    heating 
apparatus,  provision  can  be  made  for  adding  a  certain 
percentage  of  moisture  to  the  air  before  the  same  is 
conducted  to  the  rooms,  and  in  the  case  of  individual 
heating  appliances  set  up  in  the  class-rooms,  it  is  easy 
to  provide  special  vessels  containing  water  to  be  evap- 
orated so  as  to  prevent  the  air  from  becoming  too  dry. 

Where  a  thermostatic  system  of  temperature  control 
is  not  provided  for,  it  is  necessary  that  every  school- 
room should  have  a  reliable  thermometer.  This,  if 
possible,  should  be  arranged  so  as  to  be  read  from 
the  corridor  as  well  as  from  'the  class-room,  for  in  this 
way  the  janitor  in  charge  of  the  heating  apparatus  may 
take  observations  of  the  temperature  without  disturb- 
ing the  classes. 

LIGHTING. 

58.  Daylight  Illumination. — In  speaking  of  the  win- 
dows of  class-rooms,  I  have  already  pointed  out  the  means 


144  SANITATION   OF  PUBLIC  BUILDINGS. 

for  their  natural  or  daylight  illumination.  It  is  very 
desirable  that  the  plan  of  the  school  studies  should 
be  so  arranged  that  the  more  important  lessons  are 
given  during  daylight,  and  those  lessons  which  re- 
quire much  use  of  the  eyes,  such  as  drawing  and  writ- 
ing, should  always  be  given  during  the  lightest  hours 
of  the  day.  All  seats  of  the  class-rooms  should  have 
ample  light.  The  halls,  the  stairs,  the  entrances,  and 
the  toilet-rooms  should  likewise  be  well  lighted  in 
day  time  to  secure  orderly  traffic  and  a  cleanly  use  of 
the  rooms.  It  is  impossible,  however,  to  get  along  en- 
tirely without  artificial  light  in  the  schools,  and  this 
will  be  required  not  only  in  winter  time,  but  also  at 
other  seasons  when  there  are  foggy  or  cloudy  days. 
Hence  all  city  school  buildings  should  be  piped  for 
gas  and  wired  for  electric  lighting. 

59.  At tificial  Illumination. — Amongst  the  chief  require- 
ments,   formulated    by    sanitarians,    for    artificial    illu- 
mination  I   mention   the   following,   which   are   applic- 
able to  school-rooms  as  well  as  to  other  buildings:  each 
desk  or  table  should   have  ample  light;    there  should 
not  be  any  injurious  or  disturbing  shadows;    the  light 
should  not  flicker ;  it  should  not  be  blinding  to  the  eyes ; 
it  should  not  give  off  too  much  heat,  and  it  should  also 
vitiate  the  air  of  the  apartments  as  little  as  possible. 

60.  Electric  Light. — The  best  artificial  light,  available 
at  the  present  day,  is  the  electric  light,  and  in  particular 
the   indirect   reflected   incandescent   light.     One   of   its 
chief  advantages  is  that  it  does  not  give  off  injurious 
products   of   combustion   as   is  the   case  with  gas,   oil 
lamps,  or  candles,  but  even  the  electric  incandescent 


SCHOOL   SANITATION.  145 

light  must  be  shaded  by  opaque  or  frosted  globes,  in 
order  not  to  be  too  trying  to  the  eyes.  There  is  no 
question  that  the  lighting  of  a  school-room  is  better 
if  accomplished  by  indirectly  reflected  light  from  clusters 
of  lights  placed  out  of  the  reach  of  children's  eyes  and 
provided  with  strong  and  suitable  reflectors.  The 
electric  light  is  also  much  safer  from  the  point  of  view 
of  fire  than  open  flames. 

61.  Gas  Light. — Where  gas  illumination  is  necessarily 
used,  it  is  recommended  not  to 'use  ordinary  flat  flame 
burners,    except   in   halls    and   in   stairways.     For   the 
class-rooms,    the    round    burners    with    chimneys    and 
globes  are  preferable,   but  still  better  than  these    are 
the  now  well-known  incandescent  gas  lights,   such  as 
the  Welsbach  light  and  others,  which  give  more  light, 
save  gas,  and  give  off  less  heat.     It  is  found  advantageous 
to  surround  these  with  suitable  glass  globes,  and  of  the 
latter  the  scientifically' constructed  Holophane  gas  globes 
deserve  to  be  recommended  above  all  others. 

62.  Oil  Lamps  and  Candles. — It  is  not  necessary  to  con- 
sider the  lighting  by  means  of  oil  lamps  or  by  candles,  as 
this  seems  to  be  out  of  the  question  in  a  modern  school- 
house.     Such  means  of  illumination  can  only  be  con- 
templated in  the  case  of  the  smaller  rural  schools,  or 
for  emergency   lighting,   when   the   electric   current   or 
the  gas  supply  are  temporarily  cut  off. 

FIRE  PROTECTION. 

Outbreaks  of  fires  in  schools  are  of  frequent  occurrence. 
It  is,  therefore,  all-important  that  in  the  construction 
of  the  building  no  point  should  be  overlooked  which 


146  SANITATION   OF  PUBLIC  BUILDINGS. 

would  tend  to  increase  the  safety  of  the  structure. 
When  the  lives  of  hundreds  of  school  children,  many 
of  a  tender  age,  may  be  imperilled,  everything  should 
be  done  to  avoid  a  dire  calamity. 

63.  Fire  Protection  Apparatus. — Every  school  should  be 
equipped  with  some  good  fire  fighting  apparatus.     There 
should  be  fire  stand-pipes  with  valves  and  fire  hose  in 
the    corridors    of   every    floor.     There    should    also    be 
available   some   portable   extinguishers   and   fire   pails. 
The  school  should  have   a  fire-alarm  gong,   and  tele- 
phonic   communication   from   the   principal's    office   to 
the   nearest    fire-engine   station.     The   children    should 
be  taught  how  to  behave  in  case  of  an  alarm,  and  fire- 
drills  should  be  held  by  the  teachers  at  frequent  inter- 
vals.    Above  all,  it  is  important  to  provide  plenty  of 
safe  exits,  doors  which  open  outward,  at  least  two  in- 
dependent,   well-lighted   stairs   with    strong    balusters, 
and  with  centre  rails,  where   the  width  is  more   than 
four  and  one-half  feet.* 

SANITARY  ARRANGEMENTS. 

64.  Location   of   Toilet-rooms. — A  question  of  much 
sanitary  importance  in  connection  with  school-houses  is 
the  location  of  the  toilet-rooms  or  "sanitaries"  for  the 
pupils.     Shall  these  be  located  within  or  outside  of  the 
school-house?     Another  question  is  whether,  in  a  large 
school,    the    toilet-rooms    should    be    relegated    to    the 
basement,  or  whether  there  should  be  one  or  two  on 
each  of  the  principal  floors. 

The  author  cannot  agree  with  those  who,  doubtless 

*  See  Appendix  A. 


SCHOOL   SANITATION.  147 

with  the  best  of  intentions,  claim  that  the  toilet-rooms 
for  school  children  should  never  be  in  the  basement 
of  a  school-house,  and  who  argue  that  the  sanitary  con- 
veniences should  be  placed  in  a  detached  pavilion,  con- 
nected with  the  main  building  by  a  covered  passage-way. 

65.  Objections  to  Outside  Toilet  Pavilions. — There  are 
several  objections  to  such  outside  toilet-pavilions,  one 
of  which  is  that  they  are  difficult  to  heat  in  winter 
time;    another  is   that   it   seems   almost   impossible   to 
ventilate  the  apartments  as  well  as  the  plumbing  pipes 
through  the  roof  of  such  one-story  structures  without 
causing  annoyance  and  offense  by  reason  of  such  vent 
flues  and  soil-pipes  opening  below  the  class-room  win- 
dows.    It  is,  of  course,  possible  and  practicable  to  draw 
both  the  vent  flues  and  the  soil-pipes  over  to  the  main 
buildings,  and  to  extend  them  upwards  to  the  highest 
part  of  the  roof,  and  to  thereby  avoid  any  escape  of 
noxious  air  into  the  windows  of  the  class-rooms,  but 
such  a  construction  is  usually  complicated  and  always 
expensive. 

66.  Basement  Toilet-rooms. — Given  a  good  dry  base- 
ment, with  proper  facilities  for  water  supply  and  sewer- 
age, the  author  cannot  find  any  valid  objection  to  locating 
toilet-rooms  directly  in  the  basement  of  a  school,  pro- 
vided that  he  can  be  assured  of  the  good  and  positive 
ventilation    of    such    apartments.     That    this    can    be 
accomplished  in  the  present  state  of  the  art  of  ven- 
tilation, cannot  be  doubted  for  a  moment.     Of    course, 
where  toilet-rooms  are  so  located,  it  is  absolutely  essen- 
tial that  there  should  be  safe  sanitary  plumbing  work, 
but  this  also,  in  the  present  state  of  the  art  of  draining 


148  SANITATION   OF   PUBLIC   BUILDINGS. 

buildings,  can  be  attained.  The  author,  however,  would 
make  one  more  restriction,  and  that  is,  that  in  base- 
ment toilet-rooms  the  water-closet  fixtures  used  should 
be  the  single  or  individual  closet  bowls  provided  with 
the  best  of  flushing  arrangements. 

67.  Water-closet  Fixtures  Suitable  for  Schools. — Either 
short   hoppers,  pedestal   wash-down   closets,   or   siphon 
closets  should  be  used.     The  flush  is  Sometimes  arranged 
to  work  automatically,  but  this  involves  a  large  waste 
of  water;   it  is  better  to  provide  individual  chain-pulls. 
The  so-called  range  closets  should  never  be  used  in  the 
basement  of  a  school,  and  it  is  a  grave  mistake,  some- 
times  met   with,  to   consider  such  latrines  superior  to 
individual  closets  for  schools.     Where  dry  earth  closets 
are  necessarily  used  on  account  of  a  lack  of  sewerage 
or  water  supply,   these   also   should  be   located  in   an 
outer  pavilion. 

68.  Toilet-rooms    for   Upper  Floors. — In   very    large 
schools  it  is  a  good  plan  to  provide  on  every  floor  toilet- 
room  conveniences,  which  should  then  be  located  in  sep- 
arate  well- ventilated  wings  or  towers.      A  few   school 
authorities,  indeed,  claim  that  this  makes  the  most  desir- 
able arrangement.     It  would  doubtless  be  advantageous  in 
saving  much  time  of  pupils  which  is  otherwise  unneces- 
sarily wasted.     Ease  of  access  and  complete  isolation 
are    the    two    principal    requirements    regarding    loca- 
tion. 

69.  Teachers'    Toilets. — In    all     school-houses    there 
should  be  on  each  floor  at  least  one  toilet-room  for  the 
teachers'  use,  though  there  appears  to  be  some  wisdom 
in  the  plan  of  arranging  for  a  separate  teachers'  closet  in 


SCHOOL   SANITATION.  149 

sach  of  the  basement  toilet-rooms,   in   order  to  have 
these  apartments  under  constant  control  of  the  teachers. 

70.  Number  of  Water-closets  Required  for  Pupils. — As 
to  the  number  of  seats  required,  it  is  usual  to  provide 
in  a  school  one  water-closet  for  2  5  boys  and  one  seat  for 
every   15  girls.     The  water-closet  apparatus  should  be 
durable  and  strong  in  construction;   it  should  be  simple 
and  positive  in  action  for  it  is  often  liable  to  be  unin- 
telligently  used  or  even  abused.     For  the  use  of  the 
smaller  children,   it  is  quite  common  now  to   provide 
closets  with  lower  bowls  and  seats. 

71.  Floors,  Walls  and  Partitions  of  Toilet-rooms. — The 
floors  of  toilet-rooms,   should   always   be  made  water- 
proof and  provided  with  one  or  more  floor  drains,  so 
as  to  enable  the  janitor  to  wash  the  entire  apartment 
by  means  of  a  hose.     Small,  unglazed,  hard  white  tiles 
make  an  excellent  toilet-room  floor.     The  walls  should 
be  either  tiled,  or  of  enamel  brick,  or  of  common  brick, 
enamel  painted.    The  partitions  should  not  be  of  wood, 
but  of  either  soap-stone,  slate,  or  opaque  glass.     It  is 
usual  to  provide  doors  to  each  compartment  on  the  side 
for  girls,  but  on  the  boys'  side  they  may  be  omitted. 
If  doors  are  used  in  connection  with  water-closets,  they 
should  never  be  run  to  the  floor.     They  should  be  cut 
off  at  least  eight  inches  above  the  floor  and  the  doors 
should  be  light  screen  doors  hung  with  spring  or  reverse 
hinges. 

72..  Water-closet  Ranges. — If  an  outside  water-closet 
pavilion  is  arranged,  the  water-closets  may  be  enameled 
iron  or  porcelain  combination  ranges  with  automatic 
flush.  Such  fixtures  are  somewhat  cheaper  than  indi- 


150  SANITATION   OF   PUBLIC   BUILDINGS. 

vidual  water-closets.  Some  of  them  are  good,  while  a 
great  many  are  bad,  and  all  are  very  wasteful  of  water. 
To  limit  the  flushing  of  such  ranges  to  the  operation  of 
the  janitor,  whose  many  duties  may  often  compel  him 
to  neglect  this,  would  be  an  unwise  proceeding.  All 
trough  closets  with  continuous  bowl  and  intermittent 
flush  cause  some  pollution  of  the  air  of  the  apartment; 
those  trough  closets,  which  have  separate  bowls  attached 
to  a  common  bottom  conduit,  are  therefore  preferable. 

All  school  closets  should  be  inspected  at  least  once 
a  week  by  the  principal  of  the  school. 

73.  Dry   Closets. — If  dry  closets  are  used  in  outside 
buildings,  owing  to  the  impossibility  of  providing  sewer- 
age facilities,  the  arrangement  for  drying  the  excreta  and 
the  ventilation  of  the  closets  should  never  be  connected 
in  any  way  with  that  of  the  class-rooms. 

74.  Outside  Closets  for  Country  Schools. — In  country 
schools, 'all  outside  privies  or  dry  closets  should  be  fre- 
quently disinfected;   compared  with  water-closets,  even 
the  best  of  them  appear  at  times  offensive.     Outhouses 
for  country  schools  should  never  be  closer  than  fifty 
feet  to  the  main  school  building.     They  should  be  made 
inconspicuous,  but  preferably  connected  with  the  school 
by  a  protected  walk.     Good  lighting  is  as  essential  for 
these  as  it  is  for  the  water-closet  rooms. 

75.  Boys'  Urinals. — Among  the  most  important  fix- 
tures in  the  sanitary  equipment  of  school-houses  are  the 
boys'  urinals.      It  is  a  most  difficult  matter  to  maintain 
these  in   a  good    sanitary   condition.     In    determining 
the   number   of   stalls,   it   is   usual   to   allow   one   stall 
for  1 5  boys.     The  construction  and  arrangement  of  the 


SCHOOL   SANITATION.  151 

stalls  require  careful  consideration  and  attention  to 
details.  The  width  of  the  stalls  should  be  from  18"  to 
20",  and  the  depth  of  the  partitions  from  the  front  to 
the  wall  should  be  from  15"  to  18".  Partitions  for 
the  stalls  should  be  provided  for,  but  should  never 
reach  down  to  the  floor;  the  height  should  be  from  4 
to  5  feet. 

76.  Material  for  Urinals. — Regarding  the  material  used 
for  urinals,  it  may  be  said  that  all  materials  which  cor- 
rode,  disintegrate,   or  which  are   absorbent,   are   abso- 
lutely unfit  and  out  of  the  question,  hence  the  wooden 
partitions  so  often  found  in  the  urinals  of  school-houses, 
and  the  slatted  wooden  platforms  to  stand  on,  are  to 
be  entirely  condemned.     It  should  likewise  be  pointed 
out  that  many  kinds  of  marble  and  cement  in  any  form 
are  absorbent  and  therefore  unfit,  and  that  metals,  with 
the  single  exception  of  white-enameled  iron,  are  also  out 
of   place.     The   only   materials   which   wear   well   and 
which  are  fit  from  a  sanitary  point  of  view  are  slate, 
Alberene  stone,  hammered  glass,  and  solid  glazed  porce- 
lain ware. 

77.  Types  of  School  Urinals. — Of  the  three  types  of 
urinals,  namely,  the  individual  bowl  urinals,  the  trough 
urinals.,  and  the  floor  gutter  urinals,  only  the  latter  kind 
can  be  recommended  for  use  in  school-houses.    The  trough 
urinal  is  inferior  because  it  requires  in  addition  to  the 
trough  a  trapped  floor  gutter,  which  must  be  flushed, 
hence  it  seems  wise  to  dispense  entirely  with  the  trough. 

The  backs,  the  ends,  and  the  partitions  may  be  made 
of  either  hammered  glass,  rendered  opaque,  or  of  slate 
or  Alberene  stone ;  the  floor  gutter  and  the  platform  are 


152  SANITATION   OF   PUBLIC   BUILDINGS. 

made  of  slate  or  Alberene  stone.  Where  pieces  of  slate 
are  bolted  to  the  wall,  this  should  be  done  with  brass 
bolts  to  avoid  corrosion.  The  entire  back  wall  of  the 
urinal  should  be  thoroughly  flushed  by  means  of  a  per- 
forated brass  pipe  supplied  from  the  intermittent  flush- 
ing tank. 

In  the  author's  judgment,  the  best  urinals  for  use 
in  schools  are  the  solid  white  porcelain  niche  urinals, 
supplied  with  abundant  flush  from  solid  earthenware 
flushing- tanks.  These  are  somewhat  expensive,  and 
next  best  in  order  are  gutter  urinals  of  slate  or  of  Al- 
berene stone. 

In  all  cases  it  is  important  that  the  floor  in  front  of 
the  urinals  should  have  a  good  slope  towards  the  fix- 
tures. In  addition  to  this,  it  is  to  be  recommended  to 
have  for  the  urinals  special  local  ventilation  to  an  aspir- 
ating shaft;  it  may  be  arranged  either  from  the  house 
side  of  the  trap  or  else  through  hollow  spaces  at  the 
rear  of  the  back  wall.  It  is  also  essential  that  such  fix- 
tures should  be  cleaned  daily  by  the  janitor  to  avoid 
unpleasant  smells. 

78.  Care  of  Toilet-rooms — All  toilet-rooms  and  their 
fixtures  should  be  well  taken  care  of  and  should  be  con- 
stantly controlled  and  watched  by  the  janitor.  The 
use  of  disinfectants  should  not  be  encouraged.  Where 
a  good  type  of  flushing  water-closet  is  used,  and  where 
a  good  water-carriage  system  of  sewerage  exists,  dis- 
infection is  not  ordinarily  required.  As  a  rule,  any 
deodorant  which  may  be  applied,  simply  substitutes 
one  odor  for  another.  It  is  very  much  better  to  maintain 
perfect  cleanliness  and  perfect  ventilation,  and  that  this  is 


SCHOOL   SANITATION.  153 

as  feasible  in  a  school  building  as  in  a  hotel  toilet-room 
cannot  at  this  date  be  doubted. 

79.  Drinking  Fountains. — School  children  should  have, 
during  recess,  an  opportunity  of  drinking  water;    this 
should  be  provided   in    ample    quantity    and    of   good 
quality.     In  city  schools,  the  supply  is  best  taken  from 
the  public  or  street  supply.     Where  such  is  not  avail- 
able, as  in  the  case  of  country  schools,   a  driven  or 
tubular  well  should  be  provided,  in  preference  to  a  dug 
or  shallow  well. 

The  water  yielded  by  the  well  should  be  subjected 
to  a  periodical  biological  and  chemical  analysis.  Where 
any  doubt  exists  as  to  the  character  or  wholesomeness 
of  the  water  it  would  be  well  to  provide  a  Berkefeld, 
or  other  equally  good,  filter,  though  in  cases  where  con- 
tagious illness  exists  it  is  preferable  to  boil  and  subse- 
quently cool  the  drinking  water. 

Water-buckets  with  two  or  more  drinking-cups  for  dip- 
ping into  the  bucket  are  an  abomination ;  not  much  better 
are  sinks  for  drinking  water  with  common  cups,  for  they 
often  constitute  the  means  of  transmitting  disease, 
such  as  tonsillitis  or  diphtheria.  Where  running  water 
is  available,  the  modern  hygienic  drinking  fountains 
with  flowing  jets  are  much  to  be  preferred. 

80.  Lavatories. — In  every  school  there  should  be  pro- 
vided some  wash-basins,  or  wash-sinks,  adjoining,  but 
not  in,  the  toilet-rooms ;   by  the  use  of  these  the  children 
are  encouraged  in  habits  of  cleanliness  and  decency. 

81.  School  Baths. — The  movement  of  providing  in  the 
schools  free  baths  for  children  originated  in  the  schools 
of  Germany  not  long  ago.     The  advantages  urged  be- 


154  SANITATION   OF   PUBLIC   BUILDINGS. 

came  at  once  so  apparent  that  the  movement  spread 
rapidly  to  other  European  countries,  and  shortly 
afterwards  to  the  United  States.  At  the  present  day 
school  baths  form  in. many  of  our  large  cities  a  most 
important  addition  to  the  sanitary  school  equipment.* 

82.  Forms  of  Baths. — In  England,  school  baths  are  gen- 
erally provided  in  the  form  of  swimming-tanks  or  pools; 
these  are  intended  for  physical  exercise  and  for  health 
improvement.     Such  swimming  baths  are  expensive  to 
construct  and  to  maintain  and  they  invariably  require, 
as~a  sanitary  condition  sine  qua  non,  that  there  should 
be  preliminary  cleansing  baths  in  the  form  of  showers, 
otherwise  the  children  would  be  exposed    to    the    now 
recognized  danger  of  the  transmission  of  disease.     The 
common  bath-tubs  are  equally  objectionable  in  a  school. 
The  only  form  which  has  any  merits  as  regards  schools, 
is  the  modern  rain-bath.     This  is  cheaper  in  first  cost 
as  well  as  in  maintenance  than  all  other  forms  of  baths; 
it  is   also  the  form  of  bath  best  adapted   for  schools 
because  it  requires  less  room  to  fit  up  and  does  not 
use  a  large  quantity  of  water. 

83.  Advantages  of  Rain-baths. — Such  school  rain-baths 
educate   the    children   in   bodily    cleanliness   and,    inci- 
dentally, they  invigorate  the   bodily  system.     The   re- 
sults, wherever  school  baths  have  been  installed,    have 
been  universally  satisfactory,-  and  their  good  influence 
usually  extends  beyond  the  sphere  of  the  school.     In 
the  large  cities  many  children  formerly  came  to  school 
in  a  condition  which  made  them  unfit  to  associate  with 

*  See  W.  P.  Gerhard,  "  Modern  Baths  and  Bath  Houses."     1907. 
John  Wiley  &  Sons,  Publishers. 


SCHOOL   SANITATION.  -     155 

other  children,  and  this  for  the  reason  that  at  home 
they  had  no  opportunity  for  a  bath.  One  very  impor- 
tant advantage  derived  from  school  baths  is  this,  that 
a  much  better  ventilation  is  secured  in  the  class-rooms 
because  of  the  doing  away  with  the  once  so  prevalent 
smell  of  uncleanliness  of  body  and  clothing,  the  so- 
called  "  school  smell." 

In  the  public  schools  all  children  should  be  encouraged 
to  take  these  baths,  except  where  they  are  specially 
exempted  by  request  of  their  parents  or  their  physicians. 
In  Germany  the  taking  of  the  baths  is  voluntary,  yet 
from  75-90%  of  the  pupils  bathe  regularly,  and  the 
baths  are  quite  popular,  even  with  the  girls.  The  teacher 
should  have  the  right  to  require  the  taking  of  a  bath 
in  special  cases.  It  is  found  by  experience  that  the 
bath  interferes  but  very  little  with  the  course  of  studies 
Each  child  should  take  a  bath  at  an  average  of  once  a 
week,  but  in  summer  time  more  frequent  bathing  is 
desirable.  Doubtless  the  larger  boys  prefer  a  swimming 
pool  to  the  douche  bath,  but  the  former  is  a  too  ex- 
pensive form  of  bath  and  certainly  not  the  right  form 
of  bath  to  provide  in  a  school.  There  appears  also  to 
be  no  reason  why  all  boys,  who  love  physical  exercise, 
should  not  supplement  the  use  of  the  rain-bath  in  the 
school  in  summer  time  with  frequent  outdoor  bathing  in 
the  river  or  in  the  ocean. 

84.  Details  of  Construction  of  School  Rain-baths. — Re- 
garding the  details  of  the  construction  and  fitting  up 
of  school  baths,  it  should  be  said  that  the  simpler  the 
apparatus  the  better,  but  in  all  cases  it  should  be  con- 
structed of  unusually  strong  and  well-wearing  materials. 


156  SANITATION   OF  PUBLIC  BUILDINGS. 

The  bath  compartment  may  be  arranged  singly,  and 
this  is  required  for  the  older  girls;  in  other  cases  the 
room  is  arranged  for  the  congregate  bathing  of  a  number 
of  children.  Where  enclosures  are  used,  partitions  of 
Alberene  stone,  of  slate,  marble,  or  white  opaque  glass 
should  be  fitted  up. 

The  best  form  of  douche  head  is  the  one  which  stands 
inclined  under  an  angle  so  that  the  bather  will  not 
wet  his  head,  except  he  places  the  same  purposely 
under  the  douche. 

The  baths  are  usually  located  in  the  basement,  near 
the  playrooms.  The  whole  subject  of  school  baths  has 
been  discussed  by  the  author  at  greater  length  in  a 
paper  entitled  "A  Plea  for  Rain-baths  in  the  Public 
Schools,"  presented  at  a  meeting  of  the  American  Social 
Science  Association,  and  published  in  the  Journal  of 
Social  Science  for  1900. 

85.  Sewerage. — The  quick  removal  of  sewage  from  a 
school  building  is  of  the  greatest  importance.  In  city 
schools,  located  on  a  sewered  street,  there  is,  as  a  rule,  no 
difficulty  in  providing  efficient  sewerage,  for,  unlike  the 
modern  tall  buildings,  a  school-house  does  not  usually 
reach  with  its  cellar  floor  below  the  level  of  the  sewer 
in  the  street,  hence  the  general  rules  on  house  drainage 
can  be  at  once  applied  to  school  plumbing  and  drain- 
age, and  it  does  not  seem  necessary,  in  this  chapter, 
to  go  over  the  grounds  thoroughly  covered  by  other 
publications  of  the  writer.* 

From  a  point  ten  feet  outside  of  the  foundation  walls, 
the  school  sewer  may  be  of  glazed  vitrified  sewer-pipe, 

*  See  the  author's  tworks  on  ^Plumbing,  House  Drainage,  etc. 


SCHOOL  SANITATION.  157 

but  from  this  point  towards  the  inside  and  within  the 
cellar,  the  house  sewer  if  located  below  the  floor  should 
consist  of  heavy  cast-iron  with  caulked  hub  joints  or 
with  packed  flanged  joints,  and  when  located  above 
the  floor  of  galvanized  screw-jointed  iron  pipe. 

86.  Sewage  Disposal. — For  country  schools,  the  dispo- 
sition of  the  sewage  often  presents  difficult  problems. 
Two  rules  may  be  laid  down  at  the  outset,  namely,  first, 
common  privy  vaults  should  be  entirely  prohibited, 
and  second,  cesspools  should  be  avoided  as  much  as 
possible.  If  they  must  be  used,  because  no  other  sys- 
tem seems  practically  available  for  the  disposal  of  the 
liquid  wastes,  water-tight  cesspools,  built  in  two  com- 
partments, and  located  in  the  farthest  corner  of  the 
school  lot,  should  be  adopted. 

For  smaller  country  school  buildings  it  seems  advisable 
to  restrict  the  inside  plumbing  work  to  wash-basins  and 
sinks,  and  to  provide  outside  detached  pavilions  contain- 
ing dry-earth  closets.  These  should  be  closely  watched 
in  order  to  maintain  them  in  a'  sanitary  condition. 

Wherever  plenty  of  grounds  are  available  about  a 
school-house,  the  necessity  of  adopting  the  cesspool 
system  does  not  exist  and  better  systems  of  sewage  dis- 
posal are  available,  which  are  discussed  by  the  author 
in  some  of  his  other  works.*  It  may  suffice  to  mention 
that  in  many  cases  it  is  possible  to  dispose  of  the  sewage 

*  See  W.  P.  Gerhard,  "The  Disposal  of  Household  Wastes;" 
Van  Nostrand  Co.'s  "Science  Series"  No.  97;  W.  P.  Gerhard, 
"Sanitary  Engineering  of  Buildings;"  W.  P.  Gerhard,  "The 
Sanitation,  Water-supply,  and  Sewage  Disposal  of  Country 
Houses."  D.  Van  Nostrand  Co.,  1907. 


158  SANITATION   OF   PUBLIC   BUILDINGS. 

by  means  of  a  local  purification  system,  such  as  a  dis- 
posal by  sub-surface  irrigation.  A  surface  disposal  may 
often  be  successfully  installed,  but  this  should  never  be 
done  at  a  distance  closer  than  300  feet  from  a  building. 
In  other  cases,  finally,  the  sewage  may  be  purified  by 
means  of  bacterial  action,  either  in  septic  tanks  or  in 
contact  filter-beds,  or  preferably  in  a  combination  of 
both  systems.  By  means  of  these  systems,  the  sewage 
will  be  so  purified  that  the  outflow  from  the  filter-beds 
may  be  discharged  into  a  ravine  or  into  some  available 
water  course,  without  annoyance  to  sight  or  smell,  or 
without  any  appreciable  contamination  of  the  stream. 

MAINTENANCE  OF  CLEANLINESS. 

87.  Care  of  Class-rooms. — The  care  of  a  school  build- 
ing is  a  matter  of  considerable    moment.     Class-rooms, 
corridors,   and  toilet-rooms  must  be   kept  at   all  times 
scrupulously    clean.     When   it   is    considered    that    the 
cleaning  is  generally   entrusted   to   the   school  janitor, 
it  becomes  apparent  that  the  selection  of  the  individual 
for  the  post  of  custodian  of  the  building  should  be  made 
with  great  care. 

88.  School   Janitors. — Many  so-called   "janitors"  are 
merely  political  appointees  and  lack  the  proper  quali- 
fications for  their  position,  and  the  best  planned  and 
equipped    schools    will    suffer    through    their    incompe- 
tency.     The  work  of  the  school  janitor  should  always 
be  under  the  control  of  the  school  principal,  and  the 
Board  of  Education  should  exercise  a  vigorous  super- 
vision of  all  school  janitors.     It  is  also  important  that 
a    school  janitor  should  not  be  so  burdened  with  other 


SCHOOL   SANITATION.  159 

duties  that  he  would  fail  to  find  sufficient  time  to  at- 
tend to  the  cleaning  of  the  school-house.  School 
Boards  should  recognize  that,  in  a  large  school-house, 
the  work  of  looking  after  the  heating  apparatus,  the 
school  baths,  the  toilet-rooms,  the  ventilating  apparatus, 
the  cleaning  of  the  class-rooms,  requires  the  time  of 
several  individuals.  Therefore  sufficient  help  should 
always  be  allowed  to  the  janitor. 

89.  Daily  Cleaning. — We  may  distinguish  between  the 
necessary  daily  cleaning  and  the  periodical  cleaning. 
The  entrances,  staircases,  corridors,  and  cloak-rooms 
receive  a  great  amount  of  outside  dirt,  brought  in  by 
the  pupils,  and  therefore  they  should  be  scrubbed  and 
swept  daily.  The  school-rooms  likewise  should  receive 
a  daily  cleaning  at  the  close  of  the  school  day.  All 
windows  in  class-rooms  should  be  opened  for  the  airing 
of  the  rooms  and  the  floors  should  be  swept.  This 
should  never  be  done  when  the  floors  are  dry,  but  they 
must  be  sprinkled  with  wet  sawd.ust,  or  similar  damp 
material,  or  they  should  be  swept  with  a  wet  broom, 
or  with  moist  rags  or  mops.  It  is  recommended  to 
use  for  dampening  a  disinfecting  solution,  such  as  for- 
malin. The  school  furniture,  the  desks,  and  seats 
should  also  be  rubbed  daily  with  a  damp  dust  cloth. 
Regarding  the  proper  way  of  dusting  and  sweeping,  a 
recent  occurrence  in  the  New  York  School  Board  is  of 
more  than  passing  interest. 

School  principal  B.  had  tried  for  many  months  to  force  his 
janitors  to  adopt  hygienic  methods  of  school  cleaning.  He  de- 
manded that  they  use  wet  sawdust  in  sweeping,  and  that  they 
dust  with  damp  cloths.  The  janitors  preferred  the  feather 


160          SANITATION  OF  PUBLIC  BUILDINGS. 

duster,  Mr.  B.  claimed  rightly  that  the  feather  dusters  were 
useful  in  stirring  up  germs  from  desks  and  seats,  but  was  or- 
dered by  the  Committee  on  Care  of  Buildings,  to  procure  feather 
dusters  for  the  janitors.  He  refused  to  do  this.  Called  before 
the  school  Committee,  Mr.  B.  argued  that  germs  of  measles, 
diphtheria,  scarlet  fever,  etc.,  are  much  more  liable  to  be  re- 
moved by  sweeping  with  wet  sawdust  and  by  dusting  with 
rags  made  damp  by  immersion  in  a  proper  disinfecting  solu- 
tion. The  story  goes  on  to  say  that  the  Committee  was  deeply 
impressed  by  his  suggestions,  but  they  concluded  that  the 
method  suggested  would  require  the  doubling  of  the  number 
of  cleaners.  They  gave  no  reasons  for  such  a  conclusion. 

A  great  deal  of  dust  is  stirred  up  by  the  gymnastic 
exercise  of  the  pupils,  and  therefore  the  gymnasuim 
should  also  receive  a  daily  cleaning.  Finally,  the  toilet- 
rooms  should  be  looked  after  and,  where  they  are  made 
of  impervious  and  smooth  materials,  the  walls  and  the 
floors  should  be  washed  each  day  with  a  hose.  With 
well-ventilated  and  well-flushed  fixtures  the  frequent 
use  of  disinfectants  in  connection  with  plumbing  should 
be  discouraged  as  being  unnecessary.  It  is  much  more 
important  to  strive  for  the  maintenance  of  absolute 
cleanliness.  As  a  rule,  the  deodorants  commonly  used 
only  substitute  one  odor  for  another. 

90.  Periodical  Cleaning. — The  dust  which  accumulates 
in  a  school-house,  and  particularly  in  class-rooms,  may 
be  the  means  of  propagating  contagious  diseases.  For 
this  reason  a  periodical  cleaning  at  frequent  intervals 
should  be  carried  out  in  addition  to  the  daily  cleaning. 
Quite  recently  mechanical  means  for  cleaning*  have  been 
introduced  in  apartments  and  hotels,  and  in  Boston  the 
experiment  is  being  made  of  installing  a  vacuum  sweep- 
ing system  in  one  of  the  public  schools.  Such  a  method, 


SCHOOL   SANITATION.  161 

although  costly,  is  doubtless  efficient.  At  least  once  a 
week  it  is  desirable  to  wash  and  clean  the  walls,  as 
well  as  the  window  sills  and  the  picture  mouldings,  if 
such  are  provided;  the  blackboards  also  should  re- 
ceive attention  and  the  windows  should  be  washed  and 
made  perfectly  clean  and  bright.  Once  a  month  or 
oftener  the  cleaning  of  windows  should  be  done,  in  order 
to  admit  as  much  light  to  the  class-rooms  as  possible. 

91.  Disinfection. — During  vacation  time  a  much  more 
thorough  cleaning  of  the  entire  building  should  be  ar- 
ranged for;    this  should  comprise  both  the  cleaning  and 
washing  of  walls  and  floors  with  hot  water  and  soap 
and  a  disinfection  of  the  premises.     This  disinfection 
should  include  the  class-rooms  and  the  warm  air  flues 
of-  the  heating  apparatus,   also  the  cold  air  receiving- 
chamber  and  the  air-filtering  room. 

The  books  and  the  pencils  used  in  the  class-rooms 
should  be  disinfected  at  least  four  times  a  year  by 
means  of  formaline  disinfection,  and  the  floors  and 
baseboards,  desks,  and  seats  should  be  washed  not  only 
with  hot  water  and  soap,  but  also  with  a  disinfecting 
solution. 

92.  Dust  and  Rubbish. — In  order  to  prevent  as  much 
as  possible  the  wholesale  accumulation  of  dust  and  rub- 
bish, it  is  important  that  the  overcoats  and  rubber  shoes 
of  pupils  should  be  hung  up  in  wardrobes  outside  of  the 
class-rooms.     Near  the  entrances  provision  should  always 
be  made,  by  shoe  scrapers,  for  the  cleaning  of  the  shoes. 
Metallic  door-mats  should  also  be  provided.     Teachers 
should  strictly  enforce  the  rule  that  no  spitting  on  the 
floor  should  be  permitted. 


162  SANITATION   OF   PUBLIC   BUILDINGS. 

SANITARY  INSPECTIONS  AND  TESTS  OF  PLUMBING. 

93.  Sanitary  Inspections. — It  is  of  the  greatest  import- 
tance  in  a  school-house  that  the  plumbing,  even  when  it 
is  confined  to  the  toilet-rooms,  should  be  absolutely  tight 
and  that  there  should  be  at  no  time  an  escape  of  sewer 
air.     To  insure  this    it   is   necessary  that  the  building 
should  be  tested  and  inspected  periodically,  and  I  might 
add  that  such  tests  and  inspections  should   always  be 
made  by    disinterested  professional  men.     The  form  of 
inspection  and  the  test  to  be  applied  would  not  essen- 
tially vary  from  those  used  in  the  sanitary  inspection  of 
other  classes  of  buildings.     It  is  usual,    nowadays,   to 
test  the  plumbing  with  a  smoke  machine.     A  sanitary 
examination  should  always  include,  besides  the  plumb- 
ing arid  drainage,  a  report  on  the  general   cleanliness 
maintained  in  class-rooms,  cloak-rooms,  basement,  and 
school  yards. 

SOME  GENERAL  SANITARY  CONDITIONS. 

94.  Medical  Inspections. — At  all  times   it  is  necessary 
to   observe  precautions   against  the  spread  of   commu- 
nicable diseases   amongst  school  children.     A  constant 
medical  inspection  of  the  school  and  of  the  pupils  should 
be   instituted,   but   these   should    in    no  wise  interfere 
with  or  render  unnecessary  the  sanitary  inspections  pre- 
viously recommended. 

Periodical  tests  of  the  vision  of  school  children  should 
be  made  by  the  medical  officers,  and  from  time  to  time 
the  printed  text-books  furnished  to  the  scholars  should 
be  examined  with  a  view  of  the  effect  of  the  type  upon 
the  vision.  While  school  teachers  should  take  an  inter- 


SCHOOL  SANITATION.  163 

est  in  all  these  matters  they  should  above  all  watch 
the  sanitary  condition  of  the  building.  The  promiscu- 
ous use  of  books  and  pencils  is  fraught  with  danger; 
books  and  pencils  distributed  in  a  class  should  always 
go  to  the  the  same  children,  as  both  may  be  the  means 
of  infection  from  one  child  to  another. 

In  the  large  school-houses  there  should  be  a  special 
room  set  apart  as  a  lunch  room,  for  pupils  who  remain 
in  case  of  bad  weather  if  they  live  too  far  from  the 
school.  During  the  airing  and  ventilating  of  the  class- 
rooms the  pupils  may  also  use  such  a  room.  Lunch- 
rooms are  particularly  desirable  where  the  noon  recess 
is  so  short  that  pupils  cannot  go  home.  It  is  to  be 
recommended  that  the  lunch-room  be  provided  with  sim- 
ple gas  stoves,  for  the  warming  of  the  children's  lunches. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY    ON     SCHOOL    ARCHITECTURE    AND 
HYGIENE.* 

ENGLISH    AND    AMERICAN    BOOKS. 

"Essay  on  the  Construction  of  Schoolhouses."  W.  Alcott. 
Boston,  1832. 

"An  Exposition  on  Heating  and  Ventilating  the  Schoolhouses 
in  Boston  in  1846."  W.  Bryant  and  H.  Leopold.  Bos- 
ton, 1848. 

"The  Uses  and  Abuses  of  Air."     J.  Griscom.     New  York,  1850. 

"School  Architecture."     H.  Barnard,  New  York,  1854. 

"Country  Schoolhouses,  and  a  Treatise  on  Schoolhouse  Archi- 
tecture." Jas.  Johonnot.  New  York,  1859. 

"Mental  Hygiene."     I.   Ray.     Boston,   1863. 

"The  Gymnasium  and  Its  Fittings."  E.  Ravenstein  and  J. 
Hulley.  London,  1867. 

*  The  bibliography  is  arranged  according  to   year  of  publica- 
tion. 


1 54          SANITATION   OF  PUBLIC  BUILDINGS. 

"Manual  on  Schoolhouses  and  Cottages,  for  the  People  of  the 
South."  C.  Chase.  Washington,  1868. 

"  Schoolhouse  Architecture."     S.  Eveleth.     New  York,  1870. 

"The  Ventilation  of  Schoolhouses."      A.  C.  Martin,      Boston, 
*     1871. 

"Sanitary  Principles  of  School  Construction."  E.  Chadwick. 
London,  1871. 

"Schoolhouses.    With  Architects' Designs."    J.  Johonnot.    New 

York,  1871  or  1872. 

'Illustrative    Descriptive    Manual    of    School    Material."     J. 
Schermerhorn.     New  York,  1874. 

"School  Hygiene."     R.  J.  O' Sullivan.     New  York,  1874. 

"Hygiene  of  the  Eye."  Dr.  F.  D.  Castle.  Social  Science  Asso- 
ciation Papers.  Phila.,  1875. 

"School  Life  and  Its  Influence  on  Sight."  G.  Rueling.  Balti- 
more, 1875. 

:'The  Schoolhouse:  Its  Architecture,  External  and  Internal 
Arrangements."  J.  C.  Hodgins.  Toronto,  1876. 

"Public  Hygiene  in  America."  H.  I.  Bowditch  and  H.  G. 
Pickering.  Boston,  1877. 

"School  Architecture:  Planning,  Designing,  Building."  E. 
Robbins.  London,  1877. 

"School  Architecture."     E.  R.  Robson.     London,  1877. 

"School  Life:  Its  Influence  on  Sight  and  Figure."  R.  Lieb- 
reich.  London,  1878. 

"On  Heating  and  Ventilation.  With  Special  Reference  to  the 
Schools  of  Nashville."  N.  T.  Lupton.  1878. 

"Sanitary  Condition  of  Schoolhouses."  W.  R.  Nichols.  Bos- 
ton, 1880. 

"School  and  Industrial  Hygiene."  D.  F.  Lincoln.  Phila- 
delphia. 1880. 

"Weak  Eyes  in  the  Public  Schools  of  Philadelphia."  S.  Ris- 
ley.  1 88 1. 

"Effects  of  Student  Life  upon  Eyesight."  Calhoun.  Wash- 
ington, 1 88 1. 

"Hints  and  Remedies  for  the  Treatment  of  Common  Accidents 
and  Diseases."  T.  W.  Turner.  New  York,  1882. 

"Warming  and  Ventilating  Occupied  Buildings."  General 
Arthur  Morin.  Translated  from  the  French.  Washington, 
1882. 

"A  Treatise  on  Ventilation."     L.  W.  Leeds.     New  York,  1882. 


OF 


SCHOOL   SANITATION.  165 

"Steam  Heating."     R.  C.  Briggs.     New  York,  1883. 

"Healthy  Schools."     C.  E.  Paget.     London,   1884. 

"Six  Lectures  upon  School  Hygiene."     F.   Wells  and  others. 

Boston,  1885. 

"Eyesight  in  Schools."     R.  B.  Carter.     London,  1885. 
"Hygiene  of  the  Eye."     Hermann  Cohn.     London,  1886. 
"Sanitary  Conditions  and  Necessities  of  Schoolhouses."     D.  F. 

Lincoln.     Concord,  N.  H.,   1886. 
"Hints  and  Suggestions  on  School  Architecture  and  Hygiene." 

].  G.  Hodgins.     Toronto,   1886. 

"School  Hygiene."     A.  Newsholme.     London,    1887. 
"The  Ventilation  and  Warming  of  School  Buildings."     G.B. 

Morrison.     New  York,   1887. 
"The  Principles  and  Practice  of  School  Hygiene."     A.  Carpenter. 

London,  1887. 

"School  Furniture."     G.   A.   Robrick.     Boston,    1887. 
"Technical    Schools    and    College    Buildings."     E.    C.    Robins. 

London,  1887. 
"Designs  for   Schoolhouses."     Department  of   Public   Instruc- 

tion.    State  of  New  York.     A.  S.  Draper.      1888. 
"Town  and  Country  School  Buildings."     E.  C.  Gardner.     New 

York,  1888. 

"Public  Institutions."     F.  Colyer.     London,     1889. 
"The  German  Gymnasium  in  its  Working  Order."     G.  M.  Wahl. 

Springfield,  1889. 

"Hygiene  of  Childhood."     F.  H.  Rankin.     New  York,  1890. 
"School     Hygiene."     Including    simple     directions    respecting 

ventilation,    eyesight,    infectious    diseases,    and    first    aid 

to  the  injured.     ].  W.  Abel.     London,   1890. 
"Sanitary  Conditions  for  Schoolhouses."     A.  P.  Marble.     Wash- 

ington, 1891. 
"Hygienic    Requirements  of  School   Furniture."     G.   A.    Rob- 

rick.     New  York,   1892. 
"The  Hygiene  of  the  Ear."     V.  Cozzolino.     Trans,  by  ].  Ers- 

kine.     London,  1892. 
"School    Hygiene    and     Schoolhouses."        Young.       Augusta, 

1892. 
"Outlines  of  School  Hygiene."     W.  H.  Burnham.     Worcester, 

1892. 
"Ventilation  and  Heating."     Chap.    XVIII,   School    Hygiene. 

Dr.  John  S.  Billings.     New  York,   1893. 


1 66  SANITATION   OF  PUBLIC  BUILDINGS. 

"  Schoolhouses    and    Public    Buildings."     R.    Wade.     Boston, 

1893. 
"Notes    on    Warming    and   Ventilation   of    Houses,    Churches, 

Schools,   and  Other  Buildings."     E.   H.   Jacob.     London, 

1895. 
"The  Eye  in  its  Relation  to  Health."     C.  Prentice.      Bristol, 

1895. 
"School  Hygiene  and  Diseases  Incidental  to  School*  Life."    R. 

Farquharson.     London,  1895. 

"Report  of  the  Director  of  Physical  Training."     E.  M.  Hart- 
well.     Boston,  1895. 
"School  and  Industrial  Hygiene."    D.  F.  Lincoln.    Philadelphia, 

1896. 
"Schoolhouse    Buildings."     E.    M.     Wheelwright.     Vol.   I,    of 

Municipal  Architecture.     Boston,  1898. 
"Modern  American  School  Buildings."     W.   R.   Briggs.     New 

York,  1899. 

"Sch6ol  Hygiene."     L.   Kotelmann.     Syracuse,   1899. 
"School  Sanitation  and  Decoration."     S.  Burrage.     New  York, 

1900. 

"School  Hygiene."     E.  R.  Shaw.     New  York,  1901. 
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School    Authorities."     W.    G.    Bruce.     Milwaukee,    Wis., 

1903. 
"Lighting  of  Schools,"     S.  H.  Rowe.     London  and  New  York, 

1904. 

"Schoolhouse  Architecture."     A.  J.  Bicknell.     New  York. 
"The  Hygiene  of  the  School-room."     W.  F.  Barry.     1904. 
"The    Schoolhouse,    its    Heating    and    Ventilation."     Jos.    A. 

Moore.     Boston,  1905. 
"Modern    School    Buildings."       Felix   Clay,     London,    B.    T. 

Batsford   Co.     2d  Edition.      1906. 
"The    Planning    and     Fitting-up    of    Chemical    and    Physical 

Laboratories:    With  Notes  on   the    Ventilation,   Warming, 

and   Lighting   of   Schools."     T.  H.    Russell.     B.  T.  Bats- 
ford  Co.     London,  1906. 

REPORTS. 

"Report  on  School  Architecture  and  Plans  for  Graded  Schools." 
Commissioner  of  Education.     Washington,    1870. 


SCHOOL   SANITATION.  167 

"The  Principles  Involved  in  the  Heating  and  Ventilation  of 
Existing  Common  Schoolhouses."  C.  N.  Hewett.  5th 
Annual  Report,  Minnesota  State  Board  of  Health.  1877. 

"Hygiene  of  Public  Schools  in  Massachusetts."  D.  F.  Lincoln. 
Papers  from  42 d  Annual  Report,  Board  of  Education  1878. 
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of  Education.  Washington. 

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Boston,  1 88 1. 

"The  Hygienic  Construction  of  the  Bridgeport  High  School." 
W.  R.  Briggs.  3d  Annual  Report,  Connecticut  State 
Board  of  Health.  Bridgeport,  1881. 

"Sanitary  Tract  No.  i  of  the  Citizen's  Sanitary  Society  of 
Brooklyn."  "Sanitary  Defects  of  Schools."  1881. 

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Board  of  Health  of  New  York.  Albany,  1881. 

"The  Relations  of  Schools  to  Diphtheria  and  to  Similar  Dis- 
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actions of  Am.  Pub.  Health  Association.  Boston,  1881. 

"The  Hartford  Public  High  School."  A  General  Description 
of  the  Warming  and  Ventilation.  G.  Keller.  Hartford, 
Conn.,  1882. 

"Circular  on  Plans  and  Specifications  of  Schoolhouses  for  the 
Country  Districts,  Villages,  and  Smaller  Cities  of  Wiscon- 
sin." W.  C.  Whitford.  Madison,  1882. 

"Suburban  Schoolhouses."  W.  R.  Briggs.  Reprint  from 
State  Board  of  Health,  Connecticut.  Concord,  N.  H.,  1882. 

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Health.  Trenton,  1882. 

"Health  in  the  Common  Schools."  Sanitary  Requirements  of 
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of  the  State  Board  of  Health  of  New  York.  Albany, 
1882. 

"How  to  Build  Schoolhouses.  With  Systems  of  Heating,  Light- 
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"  Report  of  Special  Committee  on  the  Sanitary  Condition  of  the 
Schoolhouses  of  the  City  of  Lynn."  1883. 

"Questions  Intended  to  Ascertain  the  Present  Condition  of 
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Education.  Washington,  1884. 


i68  SANITATION   OF  PUBLIC  BUILDINGS. 

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of  New  Jersey  for  Parents,  Guardians,  Children,  Teachers, 

and  Trustees.     1884. 

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L.  F.  Andrews.     Iowa  State  Board  of  Health.     1885. 
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the  City  of  Providence."     1887. 
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Maine."      1891. 
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Mass. 
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of  the  City  of  Lynn."  for  the  year  1890.     Lynn,  Mass.,  1891. 
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Boston,  1892. 
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1894."     Boston. 
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Schools."     W.  Spinks.     Manchester,   1895. 
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the  City  of  Boston,  1895. 
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Montana,  1896. 


SCHOOL   SANITATION.  169 

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"School  Buildings  and  Ventilation."  Connecticut  School  Docu- 
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"Notes  on  School  Hygiene."     The  Sanitary  Inspector,  1900. 

"  Report  of  the  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction  of  Penn- 
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"School  Architecture  and  Hygiene."  G.  B.  Morrison.  Mono- 
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York,  1900. 

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1900. 

"Tree  Planting  on  Rural  School  Grounds."  W.  L.  Hall. 
Washington,  1901.  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 
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"Schoolhouse  Sanitation."  S.  H.  Durgin.  Bulletin  No.  2, 
Vol.  III.  Vermont  State  Board  of  Health.  1902. 

"School  Architecture."  D.  F.  Lincoln.  Board  of  Education. 
Boston. 

"  Report  of  the  Special  Committee  on  the  Sanitary  Condition 
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Woodworker.  1886. 

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western Architect  and  Improvement  Record.  1886. 

"The  Sanitary  Condition  of  St.  Paul  School  Buildings."     Same. 


170  SANITATION   OF  PUBLIC  BUILDINGS. 

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Snyder.     Architecture  and  Building.     1895. 
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Architecture  and  Building.      1897. 
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1898.     Dr.  Hiram  Woods. 
"Special  School  Issue."     Architecture  and  Building.     1890. 

ARTICLES    IN    MAGAZINES    AND    PAPERS. GERMAN. 

"Ltiftung  und  Heizung   von    Schulen."     Deutsche  Bauzeitung. 

1886.     J.  Keidel.     Ingenieur. 
"  Giftige  Luft  in  Schule  und   Haus."     Dr.   Mensinga.     Flens- 

burg,  1878. 

"Ueber  Schulheizung."     H.  Rietschel.     Berlin,  1880. 
"Priifung  und  Verbesserung  der  Schulluft."      Dr.    A.  Wolpert. 

Kaiserslautern,  1883. 
"Der    Schularzt."     Dr.    L.    Burgerstein.      Zeitschrift    fur    das 

Realschulwesen,  1887. 
"Das  Schulzimmer.      Vierteljahrsschrift  ueber  die  Fortschritte 

in  der  Ausstattung   und    Einrichtung  von  Schulraumen." 

Charlottenburg- Berlin.     P.  Johannes  Miiller. 
"DerSchulartzt."     Dr.  Jul.  Pick.      1906. 
"Das  Schulhaus."     Berlin.     Erscheint  monatlich. 
"Zeitschrift  fur  Schulgesundheits-Pflege."     Hamburg. 

GERMAN    BOOKS. 

"  Erf ordernisse  eines  zweckmassigen  Schulgebaudes  und  der 
dazu  gehorigen  Raume."  C.  Lang.  Braunschweig,  1862. 

"Die  Schulhauser  und  die  Schultische  auf  der  Wiener  Weltaus- 
stellung."  Hermann  Cohn.  Breslau,  1873. 

"Der  Schulhausbau."  Hittenkofer.  Deutsche  Bautechmsche 
Taschenbibliothek.  Serie  Kommunalbau.  Leipzig,  1878. 

"  Beobachtungen  und  Erfahrungen  auf  dem  Gebiete  der  Schul- 
gesundheitspflege."  J.  V.  Liebig.  Niirnberg,  1874. 

"Handbuch  der  Schulhygiene."  Dr.  Adolph  Baginsky.  Ber- 
lin, 1883.  (Contains  Bibliography.) 

"Die  Hygiene  des  Auges  in  der  Schulen."  Wien,  1883.  Dr. 
Hermann  Cohn. 

"Ueber  Schul-Hygiene  in   England."     Dr.   H.   Weber.     Wies- 


SCHOOL   SANITATION.  171 

"Die    schulhygienischen    Bestrebungen    unserer  Zeit."     Dr.  J. 

Ritz.     Muenchen,  1884. 
"Der  Bau  und  die  Einrichtung  der  Schulgebaude."     R.  Klette. 

Karlsruhe,  1886. 
"Luftung   und  Heizung  von    Schulen."       Hermann  Rietschel. 

Berlin,  1886. 
"Die   Schulkr'ankheiten,   ihre   wahrscheinlichen   Ursachen   und 

ihre  Yerhiitung."     W.  Siegert.     Berlin,  1889. 
"DievGesundheitspflegein  der  Volksschule.''     Duesseldorf,  1889. 
"Die  Schule  der  Zukunft."      Dr.  Hermann  Cohn.      Hamburg, 

1890. 

"Das  Moderne  Volksschulhaus."     C.  Hintraeger.      1891. 
"Schulgesundheitslehre."     Eulenberg  und  Bach.     Berlin,  1891. 
"Ueber    Luftung  und  Heizung,  insbesondere  von  Schulhausern 

durch      Niederdruckdampf-Luftheizung."       H.    Beranack. 

Leipzig,  1892. 
"Die     Schulheizung :     Ihre    Mangel    und    deren    Beseitigung." 

E.  Haesecke.     Berlin,   1893. 
"Grundriss     der    Schulgesundheitspflege."     Dr.    R.     Wehmer. 

Berlin,   1895. 

"Die  heutige  Schulbankfrage."     A.  Bennstein.     Berlin,  1897. 
"Schulhauser  fiir  Stadt  und  Land."      R.  Faber.      Leipzig,  1898. 
"Handbuch  der  Architektur."     IV  Theil,  Band  6,  Heft  I  u.  2. 
"Schulgesundheitspflege."     Dr.   Sigmund   Rembold.     Tuebing- 

gen,  1899. 
"  Baukunde  des  Architecten.    Neueste  Aufl.,  zweiter  Theil,  vierter 

Band.     Berlin,  1900. 

"Volksschulhauser."     C.    Hintraeger.     Fortschritte    der     Archi- 
tektur.    Heft  8  u.   12.     Berlin. 
"Hochschulen/'     Dr.   E.    Schmitt.      Heft  4.      Fortschritte   der 

Architektur. 
"  Grundrissvorbilder  von  Gebauden  aller  Art."     L.  Klasen.   III. 

Schulgebaeude. 
"Handbuch  der  Hygiene."     Dr.  Th.  Weyl.     Bandy.    Schulhy- 

giene.       Dr.   Leo    Biirgerstein    und    Dr.   Aug.   Netolitzky. 

Jena,  1895.     Second  Edition.      1902. 
"Wehmer,  Handbuch  der  Schulhygiene."     Wien,   1904. 
"  Kotelmann,  Schulgesundheitspflege."      1904.     Munchen. 
"Das  Schulzimmer  auf  der  bayerischen  Jubilaums-Ausstellung." 

Nurnberg,  1906.     Contains  a  very  complete  Bibliography. 


SANITATION    OF    MARKETS 
AND    ABATTOIRS 


V 

SANITATION  OF  MARKETS  AND  ABATTOIRS 

IN  the  following,  I  propose  to  discuss  briefly  the 
buildings  devoted  to  the  provision  of  healthful  food 
supplies  for  the  large  cities,  in  particular  their  interior 
planning  and  construction,  their  mechanical  equipment 
and  the  sanitary  arrangements  required  for  them. 
Prominent  among  such  buildings  are  the  city  markets 
and  the  abattoirs.  Both  kinds  of  structures  require  the 
solution  of  interesting  and  often  intricate  architectural, 
engineering,  sanitary  and  economical  problems. 

1.  Markets. — In  general  the  term  "market"  is  applied 
to  public  places  or  squares  in  cities  and  towns,  where 
meetings  are  held  or  where  crowds  congregate  for  the 
purpose  of  buying  and  selling  articles  of  food  supply. 
In  a  restricted  sense,  it  is  used  to  designate  the  build- 
ings intended  for  the  sale  and  purchase,  at  certain  hours 
daily,  of  food  products.     The  city  markets,  as  we  shall 
see  later  on,  are  usually  built  by  the  municipality. 

2.  Abattoirs. — The  abattoirs  or  public  slaughter-houses 
are  buildings  and  places   intended  for  the  slaughter  of 
domestic  animals,   and  for  the  dressing,  packing,  and 
shipping  of  the  meat.     In  some  cases  these  buildings 
are  municipal  buildings,  particularly  so  in  Europe,  but 
in  the  United  States  they  are  largely  built  by  private 
enterprise. 

175 


176  SANITATION   OF  PUBLIC   BUILDINGS. 

MARKETS. 

3.  Food  Supplies. — The  food  supplies  of  a  city  com- 
prise : 

(a)  vegetables,   salads,   fruit,    and   other  products  of 
the  soil  and  plant  life. 

(b)  animal  food,  such  as  meat,  game,  poultry,  fish, 
eggs,  milk,  butter,  and  cheese. 

All  food  kept  exposed  for  sale  in  the  markets  should 
be  pure,  fresh,  and  wholesome,  and  its  sale  should  not 
cause  or  create  unsanitary  conditions.  Some  food  rots 
quickly  if  exposed  to  rain  or  snow;  other  food  is  very 
sensitive  to  heat  or  cold.  Decayed  fruit,  rotten  veget- 
ables, spoiled  or  tainted  meat  should  be  at  once  con- 
demned and  removed.  The  larger  the  city,  the  more 
complex,  difficult,  and  troublesome  become  these  prob- 
lems of  food  supply  and  food  control. 

4.  Development  of  the  Market  Building. — Markets  for 
the  sale  of  provisions  were  known  to  some  of  the  nations 
of   ancient   history.     The    Greeks,    for   instance,    made 
use   of  open   market   squares,    called    "agoras,"   which 
they   often   surrounded   with   two-story   arcades.     The 
Romans   had   oblong   markets,    called    "forums,"  with 
wide   porticos.     The    market   squares   were    sometimes 
richly   adorned   with    the    statues   of    famous   citizens, 
with  sculptural  monuments  and  with  fountains.     Later 
on   markets   began  to  be  roofed  over,  but  were  kept 
freely  open  on  the  sides,  as  for  instance  in  Italy. 

During  the  Middle  Ages,  public  fairs  were  periodi- 
cally held  in  the  open  squares  or  market  places  of  many 
cities,  some  fairs  being  devoted  to  only  one  class  of 
goods,  others  offering  to  the  buyers  facilities  for  the 


SANITATION  OF  MARKETS  AND   ABATTOIRS.     177 

purchase  or  exchange  of  many  different  kinds  of  mer- 
chandise or  commodities.  They  were  generally  com- 
bined with  church  or  guild  festivals  or  kermisses,  at 
which  a  large  gathering  of  people,  who  often  came 
from  long  distances,  took  place.  Later  on,  retail  stores 
were  opened  in  cities  on  business  streets  and  on  main 
thoroughfares,  and  these  somewhat  relieved  the  crowded 
condition  of  the  city  markets.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
present  century  market  buildings  became  confined  to 
the  sale  of  food  supplies  and  provisions;  in  deference 
to  practical  considerations  they  were  gradually  replaced 
by  covered  structures. 

In  Paris,  the  Emperor  Napoleon  I.  was  the  first  to 
establish  such  public  markets.  The  erection  of  the 
famous  "Halles  Centrales"  was  commenced  under  his 
reign  in  the  year  1 8 1 1 ,  but  they  were  not  entirely  com- 
pleted until  1878.  They  embraced  ten  large  buildings, 
covering  a  total  area  of  44,000  square  metres  or  about 
ii  acres;  their  total  cost  was  about  ten  million  dollars, 
the  annual  running  expenses  two  hundred  thousand 
dollars,  while  the  yearly  revenue  to  the  city  amounted, 
a  few  years  ago,  to  from  i^  to  z\  million  dollars. 

London,  Berlin,  and  other  large  capitals  of  Europe 
followed  very  soon  in  the  erection  of  imposing  and  per- 
manent structures  similar  to  those  of  Paris.  At  the  end 
of  the  nineteenth  century  Berlin  had  15  large  markets, 
where  all  food  was  controlled  by  sanitary  inspectors, 
and  where  all  meat  sold  at  retail  was  examined  and 
marked.  London  had  four  large  markets  and  Vienna 
had  eight  such  buildings.  In  the  United  States,  many 
cities  have  public  market  buildings.  As  examples 


178          SANITATION   OP  PUBLIC   BUILDINGS. 

might  be  mentioned  the  Fulton,  the  Gansevoort,  and 
the  Washington  markets  in  New  York  City;  the  Walla- 
bout  market  in  Brooklyn;  the  Faneuil  Hall  market 
in  Boston  and  others.  None  of  these,  however,  can 
be  compared  in  size  or  magnitude  of  the  structural  work 
with  the  grand  structures  -to  be  found  in  some  of  the 
cities  of  Europe.  It  is  related  that  there  was  a  public 
market  in  the  city  of  Boston  as  early  as  the  year  1634, 
and  a  hundred  years  later  we  find  the  city  had  three 
markets.  In  1834  the  city  of  Boston  built  the  large 
Faneuil  Hall  market,  which  cost  upward  of  $150,000 
and  contained  160  stalls  to  be  rented.  This  building 
is  at  present  in  charge  of  one  superintendent  under 
whom  1400  men  work. 

5.  Advantages  of  Public  ,or  Municipal  Markets. — Mar- 
ket buildings  are  utilitarian  and  sanitary  structures,  in- 
tended for  the  convenient  exposing,  selling,  and  buy- 
ing of  food. 

The  chief  advantages  of  covered  markets  are:  The 
buyers  and  sellers,  the  market  people  and  the  public  are 
protected  against  the  inclemencies  of  the  weather,  while 
the  provisions  are  not  so  liable  to  be  damaged  or  entirely 
spoiled  by  rain,  snow,  heat,  cold,  or  by  the  street  dust, 
by  dirt  and  smoke,  and  they  can  be  better  exhibited 
and  exposed  for  inspection  and  for  sale.  The  buyers 
are  offered  a  greater  choice  of  food  supplies,  they  can 
obtain  fresh  food  products  daily,  the  buying  and  sell- 
ing is  rendered  more  convenient  and  the  prices  of  pro- 
visions become  better  regulated,  more  uniform,  and  in 
a  great  many  cases  cheaper,  owing  to  the  reduction  in 
the  rent  and  of  the  running  expenses. 


SANITATION   OF  MARKETS  AND  ABATTOIRS.     179 

City  markets  also  facilitate  the  thorough  supervision, 
and  render  more  efficient  the  inspection,  of  the  food 
supply  by  the  sanitary  police,  whose  chief  duty  is  to  pre- 
vent the  sale  of  diseased  or  decayed  meat  or  other  food. 

Under  official  supervision,  the  waste  materials  are 
promptly  removed,  and  are  therefore  not  so  liable  to 
become  a  nuisance  to  sight  and  smell,  or  a  danger  to 
public  health  in  populous  localities.  Covered  market 
buildings  also  afford  improved  facilities  for  the  storage 
of  those  food  products  which  remain  unsold  at  the 
close  of  the  day. 

The  soiling  of  streets  and  squares  uanvoidable  where 
these  are  used  as  open  markets,  is  done  away  with  en- 
tirely, and  the  street  traffic  and  the  safety  of  pedestrians 
are  better  maintained.  Moreover,  public  market  build- 
ings constitute,  if  properly  managed,  a  source  of  con- 
siderable revenue  to  the  city. 

6.  Location. — The  location  of  city  market  buildings 
depends  to  some  extent  upon  their  character.  Large 
cities  in  Europe  have  not  only  wholesale  but  also  retail 
markets.  The  former  are  always  located  conveniently 
near  to  the  traffic  and  shipping  facilities,  to  the  rail- 
roads, to  river  or  canal  transportation,  to  the  harbor 
wharves  and  docks,  or  to  the  main  roads  or  highways 
leading  from  the  surrounding  country  districts  into  the 
city.  Retail  markets,  on  the  other  hand,  are  located 
in  or  near  the  centres  of  the  most  populated  city  dis- 
tricts, so  as  to  be  conveniently  and  quickly  reached 
by  the  public  and  the  small  trades  people.  In  populous 
cities,  therefore,  a  large  number  of  well-appointed  mar- 
ket buildings  are  desirable. 


i8o          SANITATION  OF  PUBLIC  BUILDINGS. 

In  the  United  States,  many  of  the  market  buildings 
are  devoted  not  only  to  the  wholesale,  but  also  to  the 
retail  trade;  the  large  buyers,  such  as  the  chefs  or 
stewards  of  hotels,  restaurants,  institutions,  steamship 
lines,  the  intermediate  purchasers  or  jobbers  for  the 
grocery  establishments,  the  provision  stores,  and  the 
smaller  private  markets  buy  their  stock  of  provisions 
in  the  early  morning  hours;  later  on,  the  retail  pur- 
chasers come  to  the  market,  among  them  the  house- 
keepers, boarding-house  keepers,  and  many  house-wives, 
who  prefer  to  make  personal  selections  at  the  market, 
and  who  are  anxious  to  obtain  their  supplies  in  a 
thoroughly  fresh  condition. 

Markets  for  cattle,  to  be  sold  for  slaughtering,  are 
generally  located  close  to,  or  in  connection  with,  the 
slaughtering  establishments,  and  are  usually  termed 
"stock  yards."  Other  special  markets,  such  as  fish  and 
oyster  markets,  are  located  convenient  to  the  harbor  or 
the  docks;  markets  for  the  sale  of  flowers  are  sometimes 
held  in  the  early  morning  hours  on  the  city  squares,  as 
for  example  the  flower  market  in  Union  Square  in  New 
York  City. 

7.  Constructive  Features  of  Market  Buildings. — Market 
buildings  should  be  inexpensively  designed,  but  should 
be  built  in  a  substantial  manner,  and  so  as  to  be  thor- 
oughly sanitary.  They  are  constructed  either  of  brick 
and  stone,  or  of  iron  and  glass;  wooden,  structures 
should  not  be  tolerated.  Where  it  can  be  avoided, 
such  buildings  should  not  be  placed  in  a  closely  built 
city  block;  buildings  placed  on  open  squares  and 
standing  entirely  detached  are  much  preferable.  Pro- 


SANITATION     OF  MARKETS  AND  ABATTOIRS     181 

vision  should  be  made  so  that  all  kinds  of  vehicles  and 
trucks  have  easy  access  to  the  market. 

The  chief  constructional  requirements  are  the  follow- 
ing: 

(1)  the  halls  must  have  ample  light; 

(2)  they  must  not  be  draughty,  yet  be  well  ventilated; 

(3)  they  must  afford  plenty  of  floor  space  and  stor- 
age-room ; 

(4)  they  must  have  plenty  of  exits  and  passage  ways, 
also  driveways  for  the  loading  and  unloading  of  wagons. 

(5)  they  must  be  well  and  substantially  constructed., 
Ample  floor  space  is  an  essential  requirement,   and 

hence  market  structures  generally  cover  a  large  area 
of  ground.  Suitable  provision  must  be  made  for  a 
number  of  wide  entrances  and  exits  to  facilitate  the 
market  traffic.  Wholesale  market  buildings  require 
suitable  arrangements  for  loading  and  unloading  the 
trucks,  which  carry  the  provisions,  and  the  wagons  of 
market  gardeners  from  the  rural  suburbs;  also  drive- 
ways for  the  carts  and  wagons  of  the  buyers,  and  rail 
connections  with  the  available  freight  lines  for  the 
prompt  receipt  of  provisions  coming  from  long  dis- 
tances. All  driveways  require  to  be  well  paved  and 
drained. 

8.  Interior  Features. — The  interior  of  a  market  building 
is  usually  a  one-story  lofty  hall  structure,  covered  either 
by  wide-span  roof  trusses,  or  having  smaller  roof  divi- 
sions, supported  by  intermediate  iron  columns.  The 
columns  are  not  objectionable  as  they  can  be  utilized 
in  the  division  of  the  sales-stands. 

The  whole  interior  is  sub-divided  by  several  longitu- 


182  SANITATION   OF   PUBLIC  BUILDINGS. 

dinal  main  aisles,  each  being  from  ten  to  fifteen  feet 
in  width,  with  namerous  passage-ways  or  cross  aisles 
at  right  angles  to  them,  the  cross  aisles  being  made 
from  five  to  seven  feet  wide. 

Woodwork  should  be  avoided  in  market  hall  interiors 
for  well-known  reasons.  The  walls  should  be  of  iron  or 
steel  and  glass,  or  else  of  brick.  Perfect  cleanliness 
being  an  essential  requirement,  the  walls  should  be  fin- 
ished with  a  non-absorbent  material  to  a  height  of  at 
least  six  or  seven  feet.  For  this  purpose,  the  walls  may 
be  faced  with  glazed  bricks,  or  they  may  be  lined 
with  white  tiles,  or  else  they  are  simply  plastered  with 
hard  plaster  or  cement,  which  is  often  painted  with 
light-color  enamel  paint. 

The  construction  of  the  floor  is  of  much  importance. 
It  may  be  of  cement,  of  asphalt,  or  of  hard-burnt  paving 
brick.  It  may  also  be  laid  with  large  square  slabs  of 
marble,  or  be  tiled,  a  rough  tile  being  preferable  because 
it  does  not  become  slippery. 

The  buildings  generally  have  cellars  with  cool  vaults 
for  the  storage  of  such  provisions  as  are  left  unsold. 
The  cellars  may  be  arched  over,  and  the  floor  made 
waterproof,  and  finished  either  in  asphalt  or  in  cement, 
or  with  asphalt  paving-blocks,  or  hard-burnt  paving 
bricks;  sometimes  a  marble  mosaic  floor  is  used.  Hy- 
draulic or  electric  lifts  should  be  provided  to  take  the 
food  supplies  down  to  the  cellar. 

9.  Interior  Equipment. — The  interior  equipment  is 
generally  quite  simple;  the  spaces  formed  by  the  aisles 
and  cross-aisles  are  sub-divided  into  open,  or  some- 
times closed  or  housed-in,  sale  stalls.  These  are  usu- 


SANITATION   OF   MARKETS  AND    ABATTOIRS.     183 

ally  raised  one  step  above  the  floor  level  of  the  hall. 
The  stalls  are  fitted  up  with  tables  and  chairs,  with 
benches  and  chopping  blocks,  with  racks,  shelves,  and 
iron  stands,  fitted  with  numerous  large  hooks.  The 
usual  sub-division  is  into  stands  for  meat  and  poultry, 
for  vegetables,  for  fruit,  for  dairy  products,  such  as 
eggs  and  butter;  for  fish,  oysters,  lobsters,  and  other 
sea  food.  The  meat  and  fish  stalls  require  a  more-  care- 
ful fitting  up  with  marble,  slate,  or  soapstone  table 
boards.  Large  fish  markets  are  provided  with  basins 
filled  with  either  fresh  or  salt  water  for  the  keeping  of 
live  fish  and  lobsters;  occasionally  some  stalls  are 
reserved  for  keeping  live  fowls  for  sale. 

Where  there  are  cellars  for  the  storage  of  goods, 
there  should  be  also  convenient  stairs  for  access,  in 
addition  to  the  lifts  already  mentioned. 

The  upper  floors  or  the  galleries  are  utilized  for  offices 
for  the  food  inspectors  and  officials  of  the  sanitary 
police,  also  for  the  superintendent  in  charge  of  the 
market  building,  for  his  assistants,  and  for  the  market 
cleaners  and  employees.  Sometimes  a  dining-room  or 
restaurant  is  provided. 

10.  Refrigerating  Plant. — Modern  market  buildings  are 
almost  always  provided  and  equipped  with  a  refriger- 
ating and  cold-storage  plant,  and  in  addition  to  numer- 
ous large  refrigerators  there  are  included  artificially 
cooled  rooms  for  the  storage  of  meat,  poultry,  eggs, 
and  other  products  which  become  easily  affected  by 
the  heat. 

Where  refrigerators  and  cold-storage  chambers  for 
ice  are  used,  the  waste-pipes  for  the  melting  ice  must 


184  SANITATION   OF   PUBLIC   BUILDINGS. 

be  properly  and  safely  disconnected  from  the  soil-pipes 
and  the  sewer.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  meats, 
fish,  and  other  articles  of  food  are  quickly'  spoiled  when 
exposed  to  sewer  emanations. 

11.  Maintenance    of    Cleanliness,   Water-supply   and 
Plumbing. — The  maintenance  of  cleanliness  in  market 
buildings  is  of  paramount  importance,  hence  particular 
attention  should  be  paid  to  the  sanitary  equipment.    Good 
sanitary   conditions   require   the   provision   of    a   plen- 
tiful supply  of  water,  and  suitable  and  ample  arrange- 
ments for  the  flushing  of  the  floors  and  the  washing  of 
walls.     In  the  floors  there  must  be  plenty  of  well-trapped 
drainage  openings,  which  in  turn  must  be  sewer-con- 
nected.    For  the  washing  of  the  floors  and  the  flushing 
out  of  the  floor  cesspools  numerous  hydrants  or  sill-cocks 
with   connections   for   rubber   hose   must   be   installed. 
Separate  well-kept  and  sanitarily  arranged  toilet-rooms 
for  both  sexes  are  needed. 

12.  Ventilation. — Market  halls  should  be  well  ventil- 
ated.   Ventilation  is  generally  accomplished  by  means  of 
high  side  windows,  fitted  so  as  to  swing  on  a  horizontal 
axis,  or  else  by  raised  ridge  roofs  with  louvre  windows. 
Good  ventilation  is  of  paramount  importance  in  mar- 
ket buildings,  not  only  because  of  the  large  crowd  of 
persons  who  visit  the  market  daily,  but  also  on  account 
of  the  necessity  of  removing  the  strong  odors  due  to 
some  of  the  supplies,  like  fish,  cheese,  meat,  etc.,  and 
finally   because   it   is   necessary   to   maintain   the   food 
supplies  in  a  good  condition.     At  the  same  time  it  is 
important  that  the  lower  part  of  the  market  hall  should 
be  free  from  annoying  and  objectionable  draughts.    Pro- 


SANITATION    OF   MARKETS  AND   ABATTOIRS.      185 

vision   must  be    made  to  heat   the   building  in  winter 
time. 

13.  Lighting. — Ample  daylight   illumination  is  essen- 
tial, supplemented  by  gas  or  electric  light  for  the  dark 
winter  mornings.     Plenty  of  light  is  also  a  safeguard 
against  the  possible  sale  of  food  which  has  begun  to  decay ; 
it  is  likewise  necessary  for  the  maintenance  of  cleanliness. 

14.  Removal  of  Waste  Food  and  of  Offal. — Floors  and 
passageways  of  market  halls,  as  well  as  the  surrounding 
streets,  should  be  kept  scrupulously  clean.     To  accom- 
plish this,  constant  vigilance  and  care  must  be  exercised 
by  the  officials  in  charge  of  the  building.     Decompos- 
ing vegetable  or  animal  food  should  not  be  permitted  to 
accumulate,  and  in  order  to  maintain  healthful  condi- 
tions, a  daily  or  more  frequent  removal  is  imperative. 
During  the  hot  weather,  frequent  flushing  with  water 
and  the  occasional  application  of  approved  disinfecting 
liquids  should  be  practised. 

All  pavements  and  floors  should  be  non-absorbent 
and  should  be  well  drained  to  prevent  the  formation  of 
stagnant  pools  of  filthy  water.  Galvanized  iron  covered 
receptacles  should  be  used  for  the  collection  and  re- 
moval of  waste  bits  of  food,  butcher's  offal,  etc.  Water- 
tight covered  carts  should  be  provided  for  the  re- 
moval of  waste  matters;  open  carts  should  not  be 
tolerated. 

The  removal  of  condemned  food  and  of  all  waste  and 
offal  should  be  regular,  prompt,  and  efficient;  a  daily 
removal  is  absolutely  necessary.  Pending  transporta- 
tion, all  waste  should  be  stored  in  tight,  well-covered, 
and  well-kept  galvanized  iron  receptacles.  Strict  regu- 


i86  SANITATION   OF  PUBLIC   BUILDINGS. 

lations  and  rules  for  the  sanitary  maintenance  of  mar- 
ket halls  should  be  issued  by  the  municipal  board  of 
health,  and  a  daily  inspection  is  required  for  the  enforce- 
ment of  the  rules.  In  addition  to  the  daily  sweeping  of 
the  market  halls,  attention  should  be  paid  to  the  pass- 
ageways and  to  the  streets  adjoining  a  market. 

ABATTOIRS. 

15.  Object  of  Abattoirs. — Let  us  now  turn  our  atten- 
tion  to  the    public    abattoirs,  or   organized    slaughter- 
houses of  cities.     The  modern  general  tendency  towards 
centralization,  which  we  find  in  so  many  large  and  suc- 
cessful industries,  has  in  recent  years  been    applied  to 
the  places,  or  buildings,  where  animals  are  slaughtered. 
The  prime  object  of  public  slaughterhouses  is  to  do  away 
with  the  nuisance,  which  was  in  former  times  so  com- 
mon, of   doing   the    slaughtering   in   private   yards   or 
butcher  shops,   scattered   throughout   the   various   dis- 
tricts of  a  city.      In  the  large  cities  in  particular  it  was 
found   to   be   almost   impossible   to   exercise   a   proper 
control  of  the  private  slaughtering  establishments.     The 
effort   toward    centralization   or   concentration   of   this 
important  industry  came  about  principally  through  the 
desire,  from  the  public  health  point  of  view,  to  secure 
a  more  careful  and  strict  control  of  the  live  animals 
as  well  as  of  their  meat. 

16.  Evils    of    Private    Slaughter-houses. — It    became 
obvious,  long  ago,  that  it  was  uneconomical,  unsanitary, 
and  impracticable  to  slaughter  live  stock  at  the  butcher 
shops  or  the  selling  places  for  meat.     Many  evils  were 
connected  with  this  pernicious  practice,  such  as: 


SANITATION   OF   MARKETS  AND   ABATTOIRS.     187 

(a)  the  annoyance  and  sometimes  the  danger  arising 
to   pedestrians   from   the   cattle   being   driven   through 
the  city  streets; 

(b)  the  lack  of  adequate  slaughtering  facilities; 

(c)  the  difficulty  of  a  proper  official  meat  inspection, 
because  an  unreasonably  large  force  of  inspectors  was 
required ; 

(d)  the  danger  to  the  health  of  the  population  arising 
from  the  possible  sale  of  diseased  meat; 

(e)  the  universal,  unsanitary,  and  often  offensive  con- 
ditions pf  the  slaughtering  places,  caused  by  the  deficient 
facilities  for  cleanliness; 

(/)  the  improper  disposal  of  the  animal  waste  mat- 
ters, which  resulted  in  nuisances,  bad  odors,  and  in  soil, 
air,  and  water  pollution; 

(g)  the  annoyance  to  the  public,  incident  to  the  re- 
moval of  the  offal  and  waste  through  the  streets; 

(h)  the  nuisances  arising  from  the  keeping  of  ani- 
mals before  killing,  as  well  as  the  noise  incident  to  the 
killing  process; 

(i)  the  bad  effects  of  exposing  the  slaughtering  pro- 
cesses to  the  eyes  of  children; 

(/)  the  lack  of  regulation  in  the  methods  employed 
and  the  failure  to  adopt  improved  methods  of  killing 
the  cattle; 

(k)  and  finally  the  increased  cost  of  the  meat  supply 
to  the  consumers. 

All  the  objections  cited  are  removed  and  overcome 
by  the  only  proper  remedy,  which  consists  in  the  con- 
centration of  the  business  of  killing  animals,  intended 
for  food,  and  the  erection  of  central  abattoirs  or  public 


i88  SANITATION   OF  PUBLIC   BUILDINGS. 

slaughter-houses,  removed  from  the  crowded  city  dis- 
tricts to  the  city  limits,  and  simultaneously  with  this 
the  abolition  of  all  small  private  slaughtering  places, 
located  in  the  heart  of  the  city. 

In  order  to  render  public  abattoirs  successful  it  is 
absolutely  necessary  that  the  municipality  should  have 
the  legal  right  to  prohibit  private  slaughtering,  to  estab- 
lish laws  making  the  slaughtering  at  the  public  abattoirs 
obligatory,  and  to  make  rules  and  regulations  insuring 
the  killing  of  cattle  and  hogs  and  the  preparation  of 
animal  food  products  under  conditions  favorable  to  the 
public  health. 

17.  Advantages  of  Central  Abattoirs. — Numerous  ad- 
vantages arise  to  a  city  from  the  establishment  of  cen- 
tral public  abattoirs,  and  chief  amongst  these  are  the 
following : 

(1)  They  do  away  with  all  the  injurious  features,  pre- 
viously mentioned,   connected  with  private  slaughter- 
houses, when  these  are  scattered  among  the  populous 
city   districts.     The  public  health   is   considerably   im- 
proved by  the  abolishment  of  the  ill-kept  private  slaugh 
tering  establishments,  which  are  generally  reeking  with 
filth,  and  hence  become  offensive  to  the  entire  neighbor- 
hood.    The   public    health    is   protected,   because    the 
slaughtering  business  is  carried  on  in  the  public  abat- 
toirs on   sanitary  principles,  and  because  cleanliness  is 
maintained,  and  good  order  and  business  system  pre- 
vail. 

(2)  Offensive  odors  and  disagreeable  noises  connected 
with  the  slaughtering  business  are  either  removed  en- 
tirely,  or  reduced  to  a  minimum.     Unsanitary  condi- 


SANITATION   OF   MARKETS   AND   ABATTOIRS.     189 

tions,  resulting  in  the  pollution  of  the  soil,  the  air,  and 
of  surface-  and  underground-waters  are  removed. 

(3)  The  street   traffic  is  benefited,  because  the  driv- 
ing of  cattle   through   the   city   streets   is   eithei    done 
away  with  entirely  or  considerably  reduced.     This  in 
turn   facilitates   the   maintenance   of   the   streets   in    a 
clean  condition. 

(4)  The    sanitary   inspection   of   the    animals   before 
slaughtering  and  of  the  meat  after  killing    is    greatly 
facilitated    and    performed    in    a    more    organized    and 
careful  manner.     The  sale  of  unwholesome  or  diseased 
meat  is  more  efficiently  prevented. 

(5)  The  butchers  are  offered  better  facilities  for  the 
killing  of  the  animals  and  for  the  dressing  of  the  meat; 
the  killing  is  done  in  a  humane  way  and  under  the  con- 
stant superintendence  of  qualified  inspectors.     Owing  to 
increased    facilities    for    the    storage    and   keeping   of 
meat,  the  latter  does  not  so  readily  spoil.     Moreover, 
better  facilities  exist  for  the  maintenance  of  cleanliness. 

(6)  Central    abattoirs    also    facilitate    the    disposal, 
prompt    removal,    or    commercial    utilization,    of     the 
numerous  waste  products  of  slaughtering.     The  hides, 
blood,  the  fat,  the  bones,  the  entrails,  and  the  offal  are 
taken    care    of    in    properly-arranged    establishments, 
which  form  adjuncts  to  the  slaughter-houses. 

(7)  In  case  of  cattle  epidemics,  there  is  a  better  con- 
trol of  the  animals  to  be  butchered. 

(8)  In    large     abattoirs    slaughtering    is    done    more 
economically,  hence  the  prices  of  meat  are  better  regu- 
lated and  kept  lower.     The  entire  business  is  accom- 
plished in  a  more  orderly  and  systematical  manner,  a 


190  SANITATION   OF   PUBLIC   BUILDINGS. 

steadier  supply  of  meat  is  furnished  and  a  scarcity  in 
the  meat  supply  cannot  so  easily  occur. 

18.  Private  and  Municipal  Abattoirs. — Large  public 
abattoirs  may  be  built  and  erected,  first:  by  the  muni- 
cipality; second:  by  butchers'  associations  or  corpora- 
tions; third  :by  private  individuals  or  firms. 

In  Europe,  municipal  abattoirs  are  the  rule,  and  we 
find  there  only  a  few  instances  of  abattoirs  erected  by 
private  individuals.  In  the  United  States  the  majority 
of  abattoirs  are  built  by  butchers'  associations  (for  ex- 
ample those  of  New  York  City  and  those  at  Brighton, 
near  Boston),  while  others  are  established  through  the 
enterprise  of  private  firms. 

It  seems,  generally,  preferable  to  have  public  abat- 
toirs built  and  controlled  by  the  municipality,  for  the 
slaughtering  of  animals  for  food  and  the  inspection  of 
the  meat  involve  sanitary  problems  which  should  be 
under  the  control  of  the  sanitary  police.  In  some  in- 
stances, the  meat  inspection  and  control  is  performed 
by  the  State  Board  of  Health,  and  in  some  very  large 
abattoirs,  from  which  meat  is  exported  to  foreign  coun- 
tries, as  in  Chicago,  there  is  a  Government  inspection. 

There  is  no  doubt  but  that  large  central  public  abat- 
toirs, erected  by  .the  city,  offer  the  best  solution  of  the 
problem  of  the  sanitary  control  of  the  meat  supply. 
Cleanliness  and  sanitation  can  be  enforced  efficiently 
only  where  these  buildings  are  owned  by  the  city.  When 
this  is  the  case,  the  city  rents  the  slaughter-stands  or 
compartments  to  the  butchers,  and  in  this  way  the 
abattoirs  become  a  source  of  considerable  municipal 
revenue. 


SANITATION   OF   MARKETS  AND   ABATTOIRS.     191 

19.  Development  of  the  Abattoir. — It  is  interesting  tc 
review  briefly  the  historical  development  of  the  public 
abattoir.  Ancient  Rome  had  such  public  slaughter- 
houses and  a  guild  of  butchers  existed  during  the  reign 
of  the  Emperors,  whose  members  were  privileged  tc 
kill  animals  intended  for  meat  supply.  The  slaughter- 
ing was  done  in  special  buildings.  With  this  single 
exception  there  did  not  exist  in  any  country  previous 
to  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  any  or- 
ganized system  for  the  slaughter  of  cattle.  The  butchers 
usually  slaughtered  the  animals  on  their  own  premises, 
hence  the  official  meat  inspection  was  very  difficult  and 
often  proved  quite  insufficient.  The  annoying  odors 
from  the  scattered  slaughter-houses  constituted  an  enor- 
mous sanitary  evil. 

The  public  abattoirs  may  be  said  to  have  originated 
at  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  in  France. 
The  Emperor  Napoleon  I.,  to  whose  active  interest,  as  I 
have  already  mentioned,  we  owe  the  establishment  of 
the  first  public  market  buildings  in  Paris,  gave  the 
matter  considerable  attention.  Recognizing  the  many 
sanitary,  commercial  and  economical  advantages  due 
to  centralized  public  abattoirs,  he  authorized  and  or- 
dered their  construction  in  the  suburbs,  of  Paris  in  the 
year  1807.  He  issued  at  the  same  time  a  decree,  forbid- 
ding entirely  all  private  slaughtering  in  the  small  shops. 
Three  years  later,  in  1810,  he  caused  laws  to  be  passed 
applying  to  the  entire  country.  In  1815  five  public 
slaughter-houses  were  opened,  covering  38  acres  of 
ground,  which  were  considered  models  of  construction 
and  internal  equipment. 


192  SANITATION   OF   PUBLIC   BUILDINGS. 

Since  then,  many  large  cities  of  other  European  coun- 
tries, and  even  smaller  towns,  have  followed  the  ex- 
ample of  Paris  and  erected  public  abattoirs.  Even  the 
use  of  the  French  word  "abattoir"  has  gone  over  into 
the  English  and  German  languages.  In  Prussia,  a  law 
was  passed  in  1868  prohibiting  the  slaughtering  of  cattle 
anywhere  except  at  the  public  abattoirs.  In  order  to 
show  the  rapid  increase  in  the  number  of  such  public 
buildings,  it  may  be  mentioned  that  in  1870  Germany 
had  about  80  abattoirs,  in  1896  over  600,  and  in  1902, 
836  public  abattoirs,  of  which  71  had  also  large  stock 
yards  connected  "with  them.  In  no  other  country 
has  so  much  been  accomplished  in  the  matter  of 
municipal  abattoirs  in  recent  years  as  in  Germany,  and 
some  of  the  large  German  establishments,  which  the 
author  has  recently  visited  and  inspected,  are  models  of 
construction  and  equipment,  and  have  in  some  instances 
been  followed  elsewhere.  In  my  judgment,  American 
cities  could  profit  greatly  by  studying  the  best  ex- 
amples existing  in  the  older  civilized  countries.  In 
the  United  States  many  private  abattoirs  and  packing 
houses  of  great  size  exist,  particularly  in  the  large  West- 
ern cities,  which  are  also  the  centres  of  the  cattle  mar- 
ket, such  as  Chicago,  Kansas  City,  St.  Louis,  Cincinnati, 
and  Louisville.  The  largest  central  live  stock  depot 
and  the  largest  abattoir  in  the  United  States  is  at  the 
Union  Stock  Yards  at  Chicago. 

In  New  York  City,  slaughtering-houses  prior  to  the 
year  1866  were  scattered  over  all  parts  of  the  city,  to 
the  great  detriment  of  the  health  of  its  inhabitants, 
but  in  more  recent  years  several  central  abattoirs  have 


SANITATION    OF   MARKETS   AND   ABATTOIRS.     193 

been  erected  by  private  enterprise,  and  the  most  re- 
cent example  will  be  again  referred  to  further  on  as  a 
model  of  construction.  In  Boston,  large  abattoirs  were 
built  at  Brighton  under  the  supervision  of  the  State 
Board  of  Health.  Some  of  the  public  abattoirs  of 
American  cities  are  immense  establishments,  fitted  up 
with  the  most  elaborate  and  latest  improved  machinery 
for  the  rapid  performance  of  the  work  and  for  the 
humane  killing  of  a  very  large  number  of  animals;  they 
also  have  well-arranged  auxiliary  buildings  intended 
for  the  sanitary  and  commercial  disposal  of  the  offal 
incident  to  slaughtering. 

20.  Unsanitary  Conditions  of  Abattoirs. — Not  all  of  the 
existing  abattoirs,  however,  are  models  of  construction 
from  a  sanitary  point  of  view,  in  fact  in  many  of  these 
buildings  unsanitary  conditions  exist,  forming  a  menace 
to  the  public  health.  Not  a  few  of  the  structures  are 
of  wood  and  dilapidated,  the  ground  beneath  the  build- 
ings is  soaked  with  blood  and  putrefying  filth,  accu- 
mulated during  many  years.  Many  buildings  lack  proper 
sewerage  facilities,  the  floors  are  soaked,  slimy,  and 
slippery  and  are  not  properly  washed  or  flushed,  the 
walls  are  spattered  with  blood,  grease,  and  hair,  or 
covered  with  mould. 

Even  the  processes  of  slaughtering  and  dressing  the 
animals  are  carried  on  in  an  uncleanly  and  unsanitary 
manner;  the  workrooms  are  poorly  lighted  and  unven- 
tilated,  the  windows  obscured  with  dirt,  inside  rooms 
without  light  or  air  are  crowded  with  workmen  and 
working  girls,  who  are  compelled  to  breathe  the  air, 
rendered  unhealthy  by  exhalations  from  rotten  wood  and 


194          SANITATION  OF  PUBLIC  BUILDINGS. 

decaying  meat  scraps  or  putrefying  grease.  The  work- 
tables,  benches,  the  meat  racks,  and  the  receptacles 
are  inadequately  cleaned.  No  attention  is  paid  to  the 
provision  of  proper  and  decent  toilet-rooms  and  lava- 
tories for  both  sexes;  the  inadequate  provisions  made 
are  sometimes  found  located  in  corners  of  the  very 
workrooms.  There  is  a  general  lack  of  consideration  for 
the  health  and  the  comfort  of  the  employees.  Condi- 
tions, such  as  I  have  briefly  mentioned,  would  even 
appear  to  be  the  rule  rather  than  the  exception  in  some 
establishments. 

Reference  was  made  to  some  of  these  deficiencies  and 
faults  in  an  article  by  Dr.  Stiles  on  "The  Country 
Slaughter-house  as  a  Factor  in  the  Spread  of  Disease," 
published  in  the  Year  Book  of  the  Department  of 
Agriculture  for  1896.  More  recently,  public  attention 
has  been  drawn  to  this  indescribable  state  of  affairs, 
not  only  by  the  descriptions  contained  in  Upton  Sin- 
clair's work  "The  Jungle,"  but  also  by  the  report  of 
the  investigation,  made  at  the  request  of  the  President 
of  the  United  States,  by  Dr.  Chas.  P.  Neill,  Commissioner 
of  Labor,  and  by  James  P.  Reynolds,  Esq.,  Sociologist. 
It  is  perhaps  to  be  regretted  that  the  Commission,  en- 
trusted with  the  work  of  investigation,  did  not  include 
a  sanitary  expert,  but  it  is  reasonably  certain  that  if 
laymen  could  find  and  enumerate  so  many  defects 
as  are  mentioned  in  the  report  referred  to,  still  graver 
sanitary  defects  would  probably  have  been  discovered 
by  a  more  thorough  technical  investigation. 

The  immediate  effect  of  the  publication  of  the  report 
mentioned  has  been  that  numerous  improvements  in 


SANITATION   OF  MARKETS   AND   ABATTOIRS.     195 

the  sanitary  arrangement  and  equipment  of  many 
abattoirs  were  carried  out,  also  that  stringent  rules  and 
regulations  were  passed  by  the  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  for  the  proper  meat  inspection  and 
for  the  sanitation  of  the  buildings.* 

It  should  be  mentioned  that  the  large  abattoirs  of 
Western  cities  have  always  attached  to  them  immense 
packing  houses,  in  which  the  preparation  of  meat  food 
products,  sausages,  canned  meats,  etc.,  takes  place. 
It  is  quite  obvious  that  an  official  sanitary  inspection 
of  such  incidental  trades,  which  form  a  very  important 
modern  industry,  is  quite  as  much  required  as  that  of 
buildings  where  only  slaughtering  is  done.  The  consid- 
erations given  in  the  following  pages,  however,  refer 
only  to  the  latter  class  of  buildings. 

21.  Site  for  Abattoirs. — The  site  for  a  public  abattoir 
should  be  chosen  in  the  outskirts  of  a  city;  it  should 
be  isolated,  yet  easily  accessible  from  all  sides.  There 
are  a  few  good  examples  of  abattoirs  located  within 
built-up  city  districts,  but  as  a  rule  an  outside  loca- 
tion is  preferable,  as  it  does  away  with  the  noises  and 
smells  inevitable  where  many  animals  are  kept  together 
in  readiness  to  be  slaughtered.  In  no  case  should 
abattoirs  be  placed  in  close  proximity  to  the  residen- 
tial districts. 

In  selecting  a  site,  the  three  important  questions  of 
water  supply,  drainage,  and  of  convenient  traffic  con- 
nections must  be  duly  considered.  Where  the  town  is 
located  on  a  river,  it  is  preferable  to  put  the  abattoir 

*  See  Appendix  D. 


196  SANITATION   OF   PUBLIC   BUILDINGS. 

below  the  town.  The  site  should  offer  facilities  for  the 
transportation  of  the  cattle,  good  connections  by  rail,  by 
water,  and  by  the  country  highways  in  localities  where 
the  adjoining  rural  districts  are  devoted  to  cattle  raising. 

A  large  area  of  suitable  ground  is  required,  because 
a  public  abattoir  is  really  a  conglomeration  of  many 
buildings.  Sufficient  acreage  should  be  acquired  or 
set  aside  to  permit  future  extension  and  growth.  In 
nearly  all  cases  the  markets  for  cattle  to  be  sold  for 
slaughtering,  sometimes  designated  as  "stock  yards," 
are  placed  adjacent  to  and  in  immediate  connection 
with  large  abattoirs.  By  thus  combining  the  live-stock 
market  with  the  slaughter-house  the  sanitary  inspection 
of  the  meat  supply  of  the  city  is  rendered  more  con- 
centrated and  proportionately  more  efficient  and  simple. 

The  site  for  cattle  yards  should  be  elevated  and  dry. 
A  liberal  area  of.  space  is  required  for  the  cattle-pens, 
the  sheds,  and  other  adjuncts.  The  sheds  are  usually 
grouped  around  paved  yards,  and  the  drainage  of  the 
roadways  between  the  sheds  and  of  the  yards,  also  of 
the  sheds  themselves,  requires  the  closest  attention. 
There  should  be  convenient  connections  with  the  rail- 
roads and  wide  platforms  for  the  unloading  of  the  ani- 
mals from  the  freight  cars.  In  connection  with  large 
stock  yards  there  should  always  be  a  well-appointed 
disinfecting  station  for  the  cattle  cars. 

22.  Buildings  Composing  an  Abattoir. — Large  public 
abattoirs  are  composed  of  a  number  of  buildings.  First 
of  all  there  must  be  large  sheds,  pens,  and  stables  for 
the  animals  which  arrive ;  these  buildings  are  sometimes 
sub-divided  into  separate  sheds  for  cattle,  calves,  sheep, 


SANITATION   OF   MARKETS   AND   ABATTOIRS.      197 

and  for  pigs.  They,  however,  present  no  special  features 
worth  mentioning.  Next  we  have  the  buildings  where 
the  animals  are  killed,  and  in  large  establishments  there 
are  usually  separate  slaughter-houses  for  each  of  the 
groups  of  animals  named.  There  must  also  be  special 
buildings  for  the  dressing  of  the  carcasses,  for  the  clean- 
ing of  the  meat,  and  the  entrails,  also  buildings  for  the 
cold  storage  of  dressed  meat,  and  other  special  buildings 
must  be  provided  for  diseased  or  suspected  animals. 

Then  again,  we  have  buildings  devoted  to  the  com- 
mercial utilization  of  the  offal,  such  as  fat  rendering 
and  bone  boiling,  and  cremators  or  destructors  for  the 
condemned  meat.  An  administration  building  should 
be  provided,  containing  the  general  offices,  the  rooms 
for  the  sanitary  inspectors,  for  the  veterinary  surgeons 
and  laboratories  for  the  microscopical  examination  of  the 
pork.  There  is  usually  provided  a  separate  boiler  and 
engine-house,  containing  the  power  plant,  viz.,  the 
pumps  for  water  supply,  the  dynamos  for  lighting,  and 
a  complete  refrigerating  and  ice-making  plant.  In  rare 
cases  a  regular  wholesale  meat  market  forms  a  part  of 
the  abattoir.  In  European  cities,  the  bureau  for  the 
official  inspection  and  control  of  the  meat  supply  is 
considered  of  the  highest  importance  and  a  good  deal 
of  space  is  devoted  to  the  same. 

All  the  buildings  named  must  be  equipped  with  the 
latest  and  best  labor-saving  devices,  with  all  modern 
sanitary  conveniences,  and  with  impervious  and  properly- 
drained  floors,  while  a  liberal  water  supply  and  other 
equipment  facilitate  the  maintenance  of  cleanliness. 

The  value  of  the  by-products  of  the  slaughtering  pro- 


198  SANITATION   OF   PUBLIC   BUILDINGS. 

cesses  is  nowadays  recognized  to  be  quite  high;  usually 
a  considerable  economy  in  the  management  of  an  abat- 
toir may  be  effected  by  a  proper  utilization  of  the  same. 
The  buildings  in  which  the  by-products,  such  as  blood, 
hides,  tallow,  bones,  intestines,  and  hair,  are  treated, 
should  be  situated  conveniently  near  and  form  adjuncts 
of  the  slaughter-houses  proper.  It  is  necessary  that 
all  these  buildings  be  kept  under  proper  sanitary  super- 
vision. The  noxious  vapors  and  gases,  arising  from 
the  cans  and  kettles  of  rendering  establishments,  must 
be  made  to  pass  through  condensing-tanks  and  then 
under  the  fires  of  the  boilers,  and  be  finally  discharged 
through  the  tall  chimney  stack  of  the  boiler-house. 

23.  Planning  of  Abattoirs. — The  correct  grouping  and 
location  of  the  several  buildings  is  important  and  depends 
somewhat  upon  the  size  and  shape  of  the  lot;  it  is  also 
dependent  upon  the  provisions  available  for  good  ship- 
ping connections.  No  general  rules  for  the  planning  of 
abattoirs  can  be  given,  as  each  special  case  forms  a 
problem  in  itself.  In  general,  three  types  may  be  dis- 
tinguished. 

In  the  first  of  these,  the  buildings  are  all  concentrated, 
roofed  over,  and  interconnected  by  covered  passages. 
This  type  requires  a  smaller  floor  area  and  causes  a 
reduction  in  the  cost  of  construction;  its  compactness 
favors  easy  management  and  superintendence,  but  the 
drawbacks  are  that  the  building  as  a  whole  can  only 
be  enlarged  with-  difficulty,  and  that  there  is  often  an 
insufficient  supply  of  light  and  air.  In  the  second  type 
the  different  buildings  are  separated  by  open  courts, 
streets  or  alleys,  and  each  building  may  be  readily  en- 


SANITATION   OF   MARKETS  AND   ABATTOIRS.      199 

larged  if  necessary,  and  light  and  air  are  provided  in 
abundance.  In  the  third  type,  which  may  be  called  a 
combination  of  the  other  two,  the  buildings  are  sepa- 
rated from  each  other,  but  interconnected  by  covered 
passages  and  courts,  and  this  is  probably  in  many  cases 
the  best  system. 

The  majority  of  abattoirs  are  buildings  of  only  one 
story,  the  killing  house  being  located  on  the. ground 
level,  while  the  by-products  of  slaughtering  are  stored 
in  the  cellar.  There  are,  however,  a  few  modern  ex- 
amples of  buildings  of  many  stories,  and  in  these  it  is 
customary  to  take  the  cattle  to  be  slaughtered  to  the 
highest  floors,  and  then  to  locate  the  different  processes 
and  operations  of  dressing  the  carcasses,  of  cleaning  the 
hides  and  of  treating  the  offal  on  the  lower  floors.  An 
example  of  this  type  of  abattoir  may  be  found  in  the 
new  model  slaughter-house,  built  in  New  York  City 
for  the  Butchers'  Association,  and  located  on  nth 
Avenue  and  39th  Street,  a  description  of  which  is  given 
in  Appendix  C. 

24.  The  Main  Slaughtering  Hall. — Among  the  buildings 
forming  a  public  abattoir,  the  one  in  which  the  slaughter- 
ing or  killing  of  the  animals  and  the  dressing  and  chop- 
ping of  the  carcasses  are  done,  is  of  prime  importance. 
The  arrangement  of  the  structural  features  of  the  killing 
house  or  hall  require  therefore  special  mention. 

We  may  distinguish  two  different  types.  In  the  first 
type,  which  is  the  one  most  universally  met  with  in 
German  abattoirs,  there  is  one  large  open  and  undivided 
slaughtering  hall,  in  which  all  the  different  butchers 
work  together,  whereas  in  the  second  type  there  are 


200  SANITATION   OF   PUBLIC   BUILDINGS. 

provided  two  rows  of  smaller  killing  compartments, 
arranged  one  on  each  side  of  the  central  aisle,  each 
compartment  being  rented  out  to  one  or  to  several  butch- 
ers. This  type  of  killing  hall  is  the  usual  one  in  France, 
in  Belgium,  and  in  Italy.  The  first  described  type  is, 
however,  very  much  preferable  from  a  sanitary  point 
of  view,  because  it  facilitates  the  official  supervision  of 
the  slaughter  trade,  and  necessarily,  to  some  extent, 
involves  a  mutual  inspection  by  the  butchers  of  their 
work.  The  first  type  is  also  cheaper  in  construction, 
for  it  does  away  with  the  many  dividing  walls  of  the 
compartments.  For  the  different  kinds  of  animals  there 
are  usually  provided  separate  and  distinct  slaughter- 
ing halls,  hogs  in  particular  are  nearly  always  killed  in 
special  buildings. 

25.  Features  of  Construction. — Regarding  construction, 
it  may  be  stated  that  the  outer  walls  of  slaughter-houses 
may  be  built  of  either  brick  or  stone,  or  else  of  iron 
with  glass  sides  and  roofs.  Wooden  buildings  should 
never  be  put  up. 

In  the  construction  of  the  interior,  it  should  be  borne 
in  mind  that  there  is  a  great  deal  of  constant  wear 
and  tear  in  such  buildings,  and  hence  that  the  first 
requirement  is  the  durability  and  strength  of  the  build- 
ing materials  employed.  Woodwork  should  be  used 
as  little  as  possible.  On  account  of  the  slaughtering 
processes  carried  on  in  the  buildings,  it  is  quite  essen- 
tial that  the  inside  walls  to  a  height  of  six  or  seven 
feet  from  the  floor  should  be  rendered  impervious, 
smooth,  and  easily  washable,  so  that  dried  blood  and 
scraps  of  flesh  adhering  to  them  can  be  readily  removed 


SANITATION    OF  MARKETS  AND   ABATTOIRS.     2OI 

by  means  of  warm  water  and  soap.  The  walls  may  be 
faced  with  light-colored  glazed  brick,  or  else  they  may 
be  tiled  with  white  glazed  tiles.  In  cheaper  construc- 
tions, the  brick  walls  are  coated  with  asphalt  varnish, 
and  any  wooden  posts  or  partitions  should  be  treated 
in  a  similar  manner.  Whatever  the  wall  surface  be, 
it  should  be  smooth  and  such  as  to  be  easily  washed  and 
cleaned. 

26.  Floors. — The  floors  of  a  slaughter-house  should  be 
solid,  non-absorbent,  and  impervious  to  moisture  of  any 
kind;  moreover,  they  should  be  hard  and  durable,  but 
they  should  not  crack,  nor  should  they  be  too  smooth 
or  slippery,  as  this  would  interfere  with  the  operations 
of  the  butchers.  It  is  somewhat  difficult  to  reconcile 
these  conflicting  requirements.  Asphalted  and  con- 
creted floors  have  been  much  recommended,  but  on 
trial  they  have  in  some  buildings  proved  to  be  only 
partly  successful.  Asphalt  floors  are  apt  to  become 
soft  in  summer  time;  the  cement  floors,  on  the  other 
hand,  may  crack  or  they  become  chipped  or  broken  by 
the  axes  of  the  butchers  and  require  constant  repairs. 
In  some  cases  roughened  bluestone  slabs  have  been  used 
with  success;  another  good  pavement  is  formed  of  two 
layers  of  hard-burned  brick,  laid  on  edge  in  cement  or 
in  concrete,  but  this  is  necessarily  expensive.  Many 
butchers  maintain  their  preference  for  a  wooden  floor, 
probably  on  account  of  its  non-slipperiness,  and  notwith- 
standing its  lack  of  durability  and  the  fact  that  it  absorbs 
organic  impurities.  Heavy  planks  of  Georgia  pine  calked 
thoroughly  water-tight  at  the  joints  in  the  manner  of  a 
ship's  deck  are  satisfactory,  but  since  the  planks  become 


202  SANITATION   OF  PUBLIC  BUILDINGS. 

rapidly  splintered  by  the  "blows  of  the  axe  used  in  slaugh- 
tering and  in  dividing  up  the  killed  animals,  it  becomes 
necessary  to  put  down  a  second  layer  of  planks,  in  other 
words,  a  double  flooring,  and  to  keep  the  same  always 
in  thorough  repair. 

The  floor  should  always  be  well  graded  and  sloped  to 
floor  drains;  sometimes  special  floor  troughs  or  gutters 
are  provided,  and  arranged  so  as  to  catch  the  blood 
and  to  carry  the  same  to  special  receptacles.  The  upper 
parts  of  the  walls  and  the  ceiling  should  be  plastered  or 
whitewashed  at  frequent  intervals.  The  roof  may  be 
pitched  and  covered  with  slate,  or  made  flat  and  finished 
with  metal  or  tar  and  gravel. 

SANITARY  FEATURES. 

27.  Water  Supply. — In  centralized  slaughter-houses 
enormous  quantities  of  water  are  used  during  the  day, 
hence  one  of  the  chief  requirements  is  an  abundant  and 
very  liberal  supply  of  both  hot  and  cold  water.  In 
Europe,  where  water  is  ordinarily  not  used  as  liberally 
or  wastefully  as  in  the  United  States,  the  supply  re- 
quired is  estimated  at  seventy-five  gallons  per  each  ani- 
mal per  day.  While  this  figure  includes  the  allowance 
for  the  watering  and  washing  of  the  cattle,  and  for  the 
washing  of  floors  and  the  sprinkling  of  the  roadways, 
it  does  not  include  the  volume  of  water  required  for  the 
condensers  of  the  refrigerating  plant.  This  latter  is 
estimated  separately  at  150  gallons  for  each  head  of 
cattle  slaughtered. 

The  water  supply  may  be  obtained  from  the  mains  of 
the  city  water-works,  or  else  it  may  come  from  a  separate 


SANITATION   OF  MARKETS  AND   ABATTOIRS.     203 

local  plant.  Where  the  abattoir  is  located  at  some  dis- 
tance beyond  the  city  limits,  it  often  becomes  necessary 
to  provide  a  separate  water-supply  system,  requiring  one 
or  several  wells,  a  set  of  steam  pumps,  and  one  or  several 
high-service  water-tanks  or  else  pressure-tanks. 

A  complete  system  of  water  mains  should  be  installed 
covering  all  buildings  of  the  abattoir,  so  that  water 
may  be  drawn  at  any  place  where  it  may  be  required 
for  washing,  flushing,  or  other  use.  Provision  should 
likewise  be  made  for  a  good  supply  for  fire  protection 
purposes,  including  the  setting  of  plenty  of  fire  hydrants. 
As  the  buildings  are  not  very  high,  and  as  most  of  the 
water  is  drawn  at  taps  located  on  the  ground-floor  level, 
the  water-tank  for  abattoir  use  need  not  be  raised  very 
high,  but  to  obtain  sufficient  pressure  at  the  hydrants 
for  fire  extinguishing  purposes,  it  is  best  to  arrange  for 
a  separate  elevated  water-tank  for  fire  purposes,  or  else 
to  use  a  large  pressure-tank  located  in  or  near  the  power- 
house. 

Sometimes  the  water  distribution  is  so  arranged  that 
the  city  supply,  where  available,  is  used  for  fire  pur- 
poses, while  the  local  supply  covers  all  other  water  re- 
quirements. 

In  the  buildings,  the  main-supply  pipes  should  be 
ample  in  size  and  should  be  carried  either  at  the  cellar 
ceiling,  or  else  high  up  on  the  first  floor,  where  the  pipes 
are  not  so  liable  to  be  damaged.  Numerous  inside  taps 
are  required,  not  only  at  the  troughs  and  other  plumb- 
ing fixtures,  but  also  for  hose  use. 

Hot  water  is  likewise  required  in  large  quantities, 
particularly  at  the  places  where  the  cleaning  of  the  in- 


204  SANITATION   OF   PUBLIC   BUILDINGS. 

testines  is  done;  also  for  the  baths  and  lavatories  for 
the  employees.  It  is  best  to  arrange  this,  by  provid- 
ing in  the  power-house  a  large  hot- water  tank, or  a  feed- 
water  heater  heated  by  exhaust  and  by  high-pressure 
steam. 

28.  Drainage. — For  all  abattoirs  good  drainage  is  very 
essential.  In  the  main  slaughtering  hall,  numerous 
vitreous  ware  or  solid  porcelain  ware  troughs  should  be 
provided  for  the  use  of  the  butchers,  each  of  these  having 
a  trapped  waste-pipe  and  connection  with  the  main 
sewer  of  the  building.  The  floors  of  the  hall  should  have 
trapped  floor  drains  at  suitable  points,  and  sometimes 
open  gutters  are  provided,  besides  special  troughs  for 
the  removal  of  the  blood  from  the  slaughtered  animals. 

The  general  rules  on  sewerage  and  plumbing,  which 
have  been  formulated  for  other  classes  of  buildings,  are 
also  applicable  to  slaughter-houses,  hence  it  seems  super- 
fluous to  go  into  their  details. 

Where  the  abattoir  is  composed  of  many  buildings, 
a  general  sewer  plan  should  be  laid  out.  In  many  cases 
it  will  be  found  advantageous  to  provide  two  sewer  sys- 
tems, namely  one  for  storm-water  from  the  paved  yards 
and  roadways  and  for  the  roof  drainage,  and  a  second 
separate  system  for  the  waste  water  from  the  buildings, 
including  the  toilet  and  bath-rooms. 

The  main  sewers  are  usually  pipe  sewers,  constructed 
of  vitrified  or  glazed  sewer-pipes,  or  where  they  are 
larger  and  egg-shaped,  built  in  concrete.  The  sewer- 
pipes  within  the  buildings  should  be  of  heavy  iron  pipe, 
and  care  should  be  exercised  to  give  them  a  sufficient 
fall,  to  prevent  deposits  and  stoppages.  All  catch- 


SANITATION   OF  MARKETS  AND   ABATTOIRS.     205 

basins,  troughs,  and  sinks  should  have  efficient  strainers, 
and  flushing  arrangements  should  be  provided. 

Manholes  should  be  placed  at  junctions  and  at  changes 
in  grade  and  alignment.  The  bottoms  of  the  manholes 
should  be  built  on  a  level  with  the  flow  line  of  the  sewer 
and  there  should  be  no  depressions  or  sumps  in  the 
bottom,  which  would  collect  and  retain  deposits  of  or- 
ganic putrefying  matters.  All  sewers  should  be  ven- 
tilated in  the  most  practical  and  efficient  manner. 

29.  Purification  of   the  Waste-water. — Although  the 
waste-water  from  abattoirs  is  not  nearly  as  highly  pol- 
luted as  that  from  some  manufacturing  establishments, 
yet  it  is  necessary   that  it   should  be   purified  before 
being  discharged  into  a  water  course.     In  Europe,  one 
finds  at  many  abattoirs  local  purification  plants  for  the 
sewage.     In  all  such  instances  it  is,  of  course,   advis- 
able to  exclude  the  roof  and  yard  drainage  from  the 
"  sanitary  "  sewers. 

The  means  Used  for  purification  are  either  mechanical, 
chemical,  or  biological,  and  sometimes  a  combination 
of  two  methods  is  employed.  Very  often,  the  plants 
comprise  large  settling-chambers  or  regular  septic  tanks, 
in  connection  with  one  or  more  tanks  for  chemical  pre- 
cipitation. Coke  and  gravel  filters  are  also  much  used. 
The  favorite  method  seems  to  be  at  present  the  chemi- 
cal precipitation,  but  more  recently  biological  sewage 
disposal  methods  have  also  been  installed. 

30.  Lighting. — Good    daylight   illumination    may   be 
attained  by  providing  the  building  with  plenty  of  large 
windows;    this  is  essential  both  for  the  maintenance  of 
cleanliness  and  for  the  careful  inspection  of  the  meat. 


206  SANITATION   OF  PUBLIC  BUILDINGS. 

Artificial  illumination  is  secured  by  means  of  either 
gas  or  electric  light.  If  the  gas  mains  of  the  gas  works 
extend  to  a  point  near  the  abattoir,  gas  lighting  may 
be  used;  a  separate  gas  lighting  plant  is  not  recom- 
mended except  possibly  an  acetylene  lighting  plant. 
Steam  being  available  in  the  power-house,  it  is  easy  to 
arrange  for  an  individual  electric  light  plant. 

31.  Toilet-  and  Bath-rooms. — There  should  always  be 
provided  the  necessary  number  of  well-kept  and  well- 
ventilated  toilet-rooms,  arranged  entirely  separate  for 
both  sexes.    Modern  abattoirs  are  also  frequently  provided 
with  shower-  or  rain-baths,  for  the  use  of  the  butchers' 
help.     These  should  be  placed  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
large  killing  hall.     The  details  of   the  plumbing  fixtures 
suitable  for  use  in  abattoirs  do  not  differ  from  those  in 
universal  use  in  other  manufacturing  establishments. 

32.  Heating   and  Ventilation. — Artificial   warming  in 
not  usually  required  for  the  large  killing  rooms,  but  the 
offices,  toilet-,  and  bath-rooms,  the  microscopical  labor- 
atories, and  the  restaurants  should  be  suitably  warmed 
in  winter.     Low-pressure  steam-heating  is  therefore  usu- 
ally installed.     High-pressure  steam  is  required  for  dis- 
infecting purposes. 

The  pens  and  stables  for  the  cattle,  the  large  killing 
hall,  or  the  several  killing  compartments,  and  the  places 
where  the  meat  food  products  are  prepared,  require 
abundant  ventilation. 

33.  Maintenance  of  Cleanliness. — A  good  water  supply 
and  proper  drainage  facilities  will  be  a  great  help  towards 
maintaining  the  entire  establishment  in  a  decent  and 
cleanly   condition.     In   addition,    there   should   be  the 


SANITATION   OF  MARKETS  AND   ABATTOIRS.     207 

very  best  arrangements  for  the  prompt  removal  of  all 
waste  accumulations  which  attract  both  rats  and  flies; 
both  pests  must  be  kept  out  of  a  slaughter-house  at  all 
hazards.  All  offal,  animal  manure,  fat,  etc.,  should  be 
removed  quickly  and  regularly. 

The  maintenance  of  absolute  cleanliness  in  every  part 
of  the  buildings  is  of  the  greatest  importance.  Nui- 
sances arise,  not  only  from  the  accumulation  of  filth 
on  or  about  the  premises,  but  likewise  from  imperfect 
or  improper  modes  of  disposing  of  the  slaughter-house 
refuse.  A  prompt  disposal  of  the  manure  from  the 
cattle  yards,  the  pens,  and  stables,  is  indispensable  and 
should  be  carried  out  with  regularity.  All  streets  and 
alleys  throughout  the  abattoir  should  be  swept  daily 
and  washed  frequently.  The  places  or  buildings  in 
which  diseased  animals  are  kept,  require  special  disin- 
fection. 

Not  only  the  buildings,  but  also  their  equipment  must 
be  constantly  kept  in  a  sanitary  condition,  in  order 
that  all  work  of  slaughtering  and  preparing  the  meat 
or  the  meat-food  products  be  performed  in  a  cleanly 
and  sanitary  manner.  Ceilings,  walls,  and  columns 
should  be  frequently  washed,  scraped,  and  whitewashed 
or  painted.  All  floors  should  be  kept  washed  and 
flushed.  The  trucks,  trays,  hoists,  tables,  racks,  plat- 
forms, and  receptacles  of  all  kinds  must  be  kept  scrupu- 
lously neat.  Knives,  saws,  utensils,  and  butchers'  tools 
or  implements  of  all  kinds  should  be  cleansed  daily  and 
frequently  sterilized.  The  same  precautions  are  re- 
quired  as  regards  the  working  clothing,  such  as  aprons, 
etc.,  of  the  employees.  These  must  be  required  to  wash 


208  SANITATION   OF   PUBLIC   BUILDINGS. 

their  hands  before  handling  any  meat,  and  to  disinfect 
them  when  diseased  carcasses  are  handled.  The  manager 
or  the  superintendent  should  see  that  these  rules  are 
enforced.  The  meat  inspectors  should  be  required  to 
follow  the  same  regulations  as  the  employees. 

34.  Mechanical   Equipment. — The   mechanical  equip- 
ment  of  slaughter-houses  comprises  a  great  variety  of 
machinery,    such   as   movable    and  stationary   hoisting 
cranes,  lifts,  tackles,  and  hooks,  by  means  of  which  the 
killed  animals  are  suspended  and  moved  about  in  order 
to  dress  them  and  cut  them  up;    trucks  and  iron  tanks 
placed  on  wheels  are  required  for  the  removal  of  the  hides 
and  the  offal;  barrels   and   pails   are   provided   for  the 
blood;  there  must  also  be  weighing  scales,  tables,  and 
chopping-blocks.     For  the  watering  and  flushing  of  the 
floors,  by  means  of  the  inside  hydrants,  a  large  amount 
of  rubber  hose  is  required. 

One  of  the  most  important  parts  of  the  mechanical 
equipment  is  the  refrigerating  or  cold-storage  plant, 
and  a  modern  large  abattoir  can  hardly  be  successfully 
operated  without  such.  In  fact,  the  success  of  large 
abattoirs  began  only  with  the  introduction  of  the  modern 
system  of  mechanical  refrigeration,  which  enables  the 
carcasses  of  animals  to  be  chilled  soon  after  killing, 
and  which  thus  helps  to  keep  the  meat  in  a  condition 
suitable  for  storage  and  transportation.  It  should  also 
be  mentioned  that  the  development  of  the  industry  of 
shipping  fresh-dressed  beef  was  largely  due  to  the  intro- 
duction of  the  refrigerator  cars  on  railroads. 

35.  Sanitary  Inspection  Service. — The  sanitary  inspec- 
tion service  of  abattoirs  comprises  three  principal  divi- 


SANITATION   OF   MARKETS   AND   ABATTOIRS.     209 

sions,  namely,  first,  the  examination  of  the  live  stock 
before  slaughtering,  by  veterinary  surgeons ;  second,  the 
inspection  and  microscopical  examination  of  the  meat  of 
the  slaughtered  animals ;  and  third,  the  sanitary  inspec- 
tion of  the  buildings  and  of  the  sanitary  conditions  in 
which  they  are  maintained.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  veter- 
inary surgeons  to  watch  the  arriving  cattle  with  a  view  of 
preventing  the  spread  of  cattle  disease  or  the  killing  of 
diseased  animals.  All  suspected  cattle  should  be  at 
once  separated  and  removed  to  pens  specially  designed 
for  diseased  animals.  The  sanitary  inspection  service 
forms  an  important  administrative  question  into  which, 
however,  it  is  not  intended  that  this  article  should 

go- 

The  proper  management  of  central  abattoirs  requires 
the  strict  enforcement  of  carefully  drawn  up  rules  and 
regulations.  In  the  Rules  and  Regulations,  governing 
the  meat  inspection,  issued  on  June  30,  1906,  by  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  an  attempt 
was  made  to  cover  to  some  extent  the  sanitation  of  the 
slaughtering-premises  (see  Appendix  D).  Considering 
the  importance  and  the  extent  of  the  slaughtering  in- 
dustry of  this  country,  the  rules  are  not  sufficiently 
elaborate  or  detailed.  They  show  in  some  parts  a  lack 
of  technical  knowledge,  but  merit  approval  as  being 
the  first  step  in  the  right  direction. 

Note. — During  a  recent  four  months'  trip  in  Europe, 
the  author  made  visits  of  inspection  to,  and  studied 
the  plans  and  equipments  of  the  municipal  abattoirs 
in  the  following  cities,  viz. :  Bremen,  Hamburg,  Berlin, 
Leipzig,  Dresden,  Freiburg,  Frankfort-on-Main  and 


210  SANITATION   OF   PUBLIC   BUILDINGS. 

Antwerp.  He  was  especially  impressed  with  the  ex- 
cellent layout  and  the  minute  cleanliness  maintained  at 
the  Frankfort-on-Main  abattoir. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY  ON  "MARKETS"  AND  "ABATTOIRS." 

Hennicke,    Mittheilungen    ueber    Markthallen    in    Deutschland, 

England,  Frankreich,  Belgien,  und  Italien. 
Farmers'  Bulletin  184,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.     Marketing 

Live  Stock,  by  Prof.  Chas.  S.  Plumb. 

Schwarz,  Maschinenkunde  fur  den  Schlachthofbetrieb.     1901. 
Oscar    Schwarz,    Bau,    Einrichtung    und    Betrieb     offentlicher 
Schlacht-  und  Viehhofe.       3d  Edition.'      1903.      {There    is 
also  an  English  translation  of  this    standard   work,    pub- 
lished in  London  about  1904.) 

Dr.  Lorenz,  Winke  fur  Schlachthof-bauende  Staedte.      1905. 
Baukunde  des  Architekten.     Part  II.     Gebasudekunde.    Vol.  I, 
Landwirthschaftliche       Gebaeude — Markthallen — Schlacht- 
hofe. 
Handbuch  der  Architektur.      Part  IV.,  Vol.  Ill,  Gebseude  fur 

Lebensmittel-Versorgung. 
G.  Osthoff,  Markthallen  und  Schlachthaeuser. 
Dr.  Theo.  Weyl,  Handbuch  der  Hygiene.     Vol.  VI,  Part  B. 
F.  W.  Wilder,  The  Modern  Packinghouse. — A  complete  Treatise 
on  the   Designing,   Construction,    Equipment,    and   Opera- 
tion of  a  Modern  Abattoir  and  Packing-house,  according 
to    present    American    Practice,    including    Formulas    for 
the    Manufacture    of    Lard    and    Sausages,    the    Curing    of 
Meat,  and  Methods  of  Converting  By-products  into  Com- 
mercial  Articles.     Chicago,    1905.     Nickerson  and  Collins, 
Publishers. 

A  large  book  of  555  pages,  ostensibly  devoted  to  the  subject 
given  in  the  title  page:  The  title  of  the  book  is  somewhat  mis- 
leading, for  there  is  very  little  in  this  book  about  construction, 
equipment,  and  sanitation  of  modern  abattoirs.  It  is  rather 
a  handbook  On  the  subject  of  the  packinghouse  business.  It 
gives  in  a  convenient  and  simple  form  practical  suggestions, 


SANITATION   OF   MARKETS   AND   ABATTOIRS.      211 

tables  and  formulas  which  are  needed  in  the  operation  of  such 
plants.  It  describes  in  detail  each  operation  in  all  the  vari- 
ous ramifications  of  the  business,  from  the  unloading  of  the 
animals  at  the  pens  to  the  production  of  the  finished  meat  food 
products.  Valuable  information  is  also  given  on  the  planning 
and  arrangement  of  the  various  departments  of  the  modern 
packing-house,  but  very  little  indeed  is  said  about  proper  con- 
struction and  the  much-needed  sanitation.  Since  the  litera- 
ture on  this  subject  is  very  scant,  one  would  suppose  that  in 
a  book  of  this  kind  much  stress  would  have  been  paid  on  the 
proper  sanitation,  the  drainage,  the  sewerage,  the  disposal  of 
the  offal,  the  water  supply,  etc.  If  the  author  had  this  point 
in  view  at  all,  he  entirely  forgot  to  mention  or  to  discuss  the 
same.  (W.  P.  G.) 

Hearings  before  the  Committe  on  Agriculture  of  the  House  of 
Representatives,    United    States,    on  "Conditions    in    the 
Chicago  Stock  Yards.     59th  Congress,  First  Session,  Wash- 
ington, Government  Printing  Office,    1906. 
This  report  contains  the  full  report  of  Mr.  James  Bronson 
Reynolds  and  of  Commissioner  Charles  Neill  on  Conditions  in 
Chicago  Stock  Yards,  together  with  other  reports  on  Inspec- 
tions, also  the  Hearings  before  the  Committee. 
Regulations    governing    the    Meat    Inspection    of  the   United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture.     Issued  under  authority 
conferred  on  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  by  the    Act    of 
Congress  approved  June  30,   1906.     Washington,   Govern- 
ment Printing  Office,    1906. 

'Our  Slaughter-House  System — A  Plea  for  Reform,  and  The 
German  Abattoir."  C.  Cash  and  Hugo  Heiss.  London, 
1907. 


APPENDICES 


APPENDICES 


APPENDIX  A 

FIRE  PROTECTION  AND  FIRE  PREVENTION  IN  HOSPITALS. 

In  General. — Hospitals  should  be  provided  with  effi- 
cient fire  protection  and  fire  extinguishing-apparatus 
and  appliances.  Water  for  fire  apparatus  must  be  pro- 
vided in  ample  volume  and  under  a  good  fire  pressure. 
The  water  pressure  may  be  obtained: 

(1)  From  a  water  reservoir,  located  at  an  elevation 
of  at  least  100  feet  above  the  highest  part  of  the  build- 
ings; 

(2)  from  a  stand-pipe  or  from  an  elevated  water-tank; 
(-3)  from  house-tanks,  located  in  high  tank  towers  of 

the  buildings; 

(4)  from  underground  pressure  tanks  in  connection 
with  compressed  air-tanks; 

(5)  from  direct  pressure  by  pumping  into  the  service 
mains ; 

(6)  from  special  fire-pumps  in  the  pump-house,  con- 
nected with  fire  mains  which  supply  the  inside  stand- 
pipes  and    fire    valves,   as    well    as    the    outside    fire 
hydrants. 

A  large  reserve  of  water,  stored  in  elevated  reservoirs 


216  SANITATION   OF   PUBLIC   BUILDINGS. 

or  tanks,  and  instantly  available  in  case  of  fire,  is  desir- 
able. Where  fire  pressure  is  obtained  by  direct  pump- 
ing, the  pumping  plant  should  always  be  provided  in 
duplicate. 

Water-tanks  in  the  attics  or  towers  of  buildings  must 
be  safely  supported  on  sufficiently  strong  steel  I-beams, 
resting  on  the  main  walls  of  the  building. 

Fire-extinguishing  Apparatus. — The  fire-extinguishing 
plant  of  a  hospital  should  comprise: 

(a)  inside  fire  apparatus; 

(b)  outside  fire  apparatus. 

Inside  Fire  Apparatus. — A  hospital  should  have  the 
following  appliances  for  inside  fire  protection,  viz.: 
Lines  of  fire  stand-pipes,  with  fire  valves,  fire  hose,  hose 
reels  or  racks,  hose-  or  play-pipes,  and  nozzles,  coup- 
lings and  spanners;  chemical  and  ordinary  fire-pails 
and  buckets  of  water;  portable  chemical  or  pneumatic 
fire-extinguishers;  fire  axes,  hatches,  saws,  crow-bars, 
and  fire-hooks,  stored  in  glass  cases ;  steam  fire-extinguish- 
ing-pipes,  and  jets  to  the  attics,  controlled  by  valves, 
which  should  be  placed  in  the  cellar,  preferably  of  an- 
other building  than  that  in  which  the  jet  operates;  these 
pipes  to  be  connected  with  the  high-pressure  steam 
main;  also  an  automatic  sprinkler  system. 

Outside  Fire  Apparatus. — A  hospital  should  be 
equipped  with  the  following  outside  fire  apparatus,  viz. : 
Fire  hydrants  and  water  mains;  hose  carts,  with  21- 
inch  fire-hose,  spanners,  and  hydrant  wrenches;  chemi- 
cal fire-engines;  fire  axes,  hooks,  saws;  also  some  fire 
ladders;  also  with  outside  fire  department  connections 
to  the  inside  fire  stand-pipes. 


APPENDICES.  217 

Fire  Pumps. — Fire-pumps  should  be  either  direct- 
acting  duplex  steam  fire-pumps,  of  the  "Underwriter" 
pattern,  built  extra  strong  and  provided  with  steam 
and  water  ports  of  large  areas;  or  they  may  be  rotary 
steam  or  electric  pumps. 

Fire  Mains  and  Water  Mains. — Special  fire  mains 
should  not  be  less  than  8  inches  inside  diameter.  Or- 
dinary water  mains,  supplying  outside  fire  hydrants, 
should  not  be  less  than  6  inches  in  diameter.  The 
branches  to  single  fire  hydrants  should  be  4  inches,  to 
double  hydrants  6  inches. 

Fire  Hydrants. — The  fire  hydrants  of  a  hospital  should 
be  of  a  uniform  pattern,  with  standard  fire  department 
connections.  All  hydrants  should  be  post  hydrants, 
either  single  or  double,  anti-freezing  and  provided  with 
frost  cases.  Each  hydrant  should  be  controlled  by  a 
separate  gate-valve,  and  these  should  be  provided  with 
indicator-posts,  or  means  for  showing  positively  whether 
the  underground  valves  are  open  or  closed.  These  posts 
are  better  than  ordinary  valve-boxes  and  do  away  with  the 
annoyance  and  delay  occasioned  by  searching  for  a  valve- 
box  which  may  have  been  covered  with. dirt  or  snow. 

The  number  of  fire  hydrants  to  be  provided  depends 
upon  the  size,  number,  and  extent  of  the  hospital  build- 
ings. The  distance  between  the  hydrants  should  not 
be  more  than  250  feet.  It  is  true  economy  to  provide 
a  large  number  of  hydrants,  as  the  amount  of  fire-hose 
required  will  be  thereby  reduced.  All  hydrants  should 
be  provided  with  caps.  Wrenches  and  spanners  should 
be  provided  for  operating  the  hydrants  and  are  best 
kept  on  the  hose  carts. 


2i8  SANITATION    OF   PUBLIC   BUILDINGS. 

Hydrants  should  be  set  far  enough  from  the  buildings 
to  escape  injury  from  falling  walls,  also  to  permit  the 
men  of  the  fire  brigade  to  operate  the  hydrants  during 
a  fire. 

All  fire  hydrants  should  be  regularly  tested  and  in- 
spected, both  in  summer  and  in  winter. 

Fire  Hose  for  Hydrants. — The  fire  hose  for  outdoor 
hydrants  should  be  best  quality  rubber-lined  cotton  or 
linen  fire-hose,  2^  inches  inside  diameter  and  provided 
with  standard  fire  department  couplings.  All  hose 
should  be  of  make  approved  by  the  Board  of  Fire 
Underwriters. 

For  each  hydrant  provide  at  least  100  feet  of  hose. 
When  operating  the  fire  hose  during  a  fire,  remember 
that  the  shorter  the  line  of  hose,  the  less  loss  of  pres- 
sure by  friction  will  occur,  and  the  more  effective  will 
the  fire  stream  be. 

Hose  Carts. — The  hose  carts  should  be  light  yet  strong, 
and  of  simple  construction.  Each  hose  cart  should  carry 
about  300  feet  of  fire-hose.  The  number  of  hose  carts 
for  a  hospital  depends  upon  the  number  of  fire  hydrants, 
but  there  should  not  be  less  than  two  hose  carts. 

Portable  Chemical  Engines. — Each  hospital  should 
have  at  least  one  portable  chemical  two-wheeled  en- 
gine, of  50  gallons  capacity. 

Inside  Fire  Standpipes. — The  hospital  buildings  should 
be  equipped  with  inside  fire  stand-pipes.  Each  building 
should  have  from  one  to  three  lines,  with  outlets  on 
each  floor,  including  the  basement  and  the  attic. 

The  diameter  of  the  stand-pipes  should  be  from  three 
to  four  inches;  ttye  material  should  be  extra  heavy 


APPENDICES.  219 

galvanized  screw- jointed  wrought  iron  pipe.  Stand- 
pipes  should  be  located  in  halls  and  in  heated  staircases, 
but  in  no  case  where  there  is  danger  that  the  pipes 
would  freeze. 

The  branches  for  inside  fire-valves  should  be  i  J  inches, 
and  the  outlets  should  be  placed  about  6J  feet  from 
the  floor  line,  to  bring  the  fire- valve  out  of  reach  of 
patients. 

In  the  basement,  the  fire  stand-pipes  should  be  con- 
nected with  the  supply  mains  of  each  building.  The 
running  lines  in  the  basement  should  be  preferably  placed 
below  the  cellar  floor,  at  such  a  depth  as  to  be  safe 
from  injury  from  falling  walls. 

Fire  Valves. — Fire  valves  should  be  extra  heavy  brass 
or  steam  metal  fire  valves,  of  the  full  waterway  or  gate 
pattern,  and  not  globe  valves.  The  size  of  fire-valves 
for  use  on  the  fire  stand-pipes  should  be  ij  inches. 

Fire  Hose  for  Inside  Use. — The  fire-hose  for  inside 
use  should  be  best  quality  unlined  linen  fire-hose,  war- 
ranted not  to  leak  and  to  stand  a  pressure  of  400  pounds 
per  square  inch.  All  fire-hose  should  be  of  quality  ap- 
proved by  the  Board  of  Underwriters  and  in  accordance 
with  their  special  specifications.  A  good  twilled  cotton 
rubber-lined  fire  hose  is  also  to  be  approved,  provided 
the  rubber  lining  is  not  too  heavy.  The  inside  diam- 
eter of  all  fire  hose  for  inside  use  should  be  ij  inches. 

Hose  Reels  or  Racks,  Hose  Couplings  and  Fire 
Nozzles. — All  inside  fire  hose  should  be  supported  on 
hose  reels  or  racks.  At  each  hose  reel  or  fire-valve  a 
hose  spanner  should  be  provided.  The  fire  hose  should 
have  standard  couplings. 


220  SANITATION   OF   PUBLIC   BUILDINGS. 

At  each  fire-valve  provide  in  connection  with  the 
fire  hose  a  brass  or  nickel-plated  fire  nozzle,  same  to 
be  at  least  15  inches  long,  smooth  on  the  inside,  of 
standard  fire  department  pattern,  and  with  either  i  inch 
or  ij  inch  nozzle  opening. 

Fire  Pails. — Each  ward  of  a  hospital  should  be  pro- 
vided with  at  least  six  fire  pails,  which  must  be  con- 
stantly kept  filled.  Fire  pails  should  be  durable,  light 
and  strong,  with  rounded  bottoms,  and  set  on  shelves. 
A  few  special  chemical  fire  pails  might  also  be  kept 
handy  in  addition  to  the  regular  pails. 

Chemical  and  Pneumatic  Hand  Extinguishers. — The 
small  portable  hand-extinguishers  are  useful  and  to  be 
recommended  for  hospitals.  They  should  be  kept  under 
lock  and  key,  and  the  key  should  be  in  the  hands  of 
the  head  attendant  or  nurse  of  each  ward. 

The  pneumatic  fire  extinguishers  are  less  dangerous 
to  handle  than  chemical  extinguishers;  the  damage, 
when  they  are  brought  into  use,  is  also  apt  to  be 
less. 

Automatic  Sprinkler  System. — In  the  specially  hazard- 
ous parts  of  a  hospital,  such  as  the  laundry,  the  work- 
shop, attics  with  mansard  windows,  etc.,  a  wet-pipe 
automatic  sprinkler  system  may  be  installed.  The 
sprinkler  equipment  should  be  complete  in  every  res- 
pect and  should  conform  to  the  standard  requirements 
of  the  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters. 

Fire-alarm  System. — A  hospital  should  be  provided 
with  a  fire-alarm  system,  and  fire  alarm  boxes  should 
be  placed  in  every  building;  also  at  suitable  points 
on  the  outside  of  the  hospital.  The  signal-boxes  should 


APPENDICES.  221 

be  numbered  and  painted  a  bright  red,  so  as  to  be  easily 
found  in  an  emergency.  Each  of  the  attendants  of 
the  hospital  should  be  provided  with  a  pass-key  for  the 
boxes,  and  the  keys  should  be  registered  in  the  super- 
intendent's central  office. 

The  engine-  or  pump-room,  or  the  power-house,  should 
be  provided  with  alarm  gong  and  indicator;  also  with 
a  fire  whistle. 

Besides  this,  the  hospital  should  always  have  tele- 
graphic and  telephonic  communication  with  the  city 
fire-department  headquarters. 

Hose  Tower  and  House. — It  is  a  good  plan  to  pro- 
vide for  the  hospital  a  hose-house,  containing  the  hose 
carts,  the  portable  chemical  fire-engine,  fire  hooks,  axes, 
poles,  etc.,  and  a  room  for  a  hose  rack  for  drying  the 
hose  after  use.  A  hose-tower,  at  least  50  feet  high,  is 
recommended  for  the  latter  purpose. 

Hospital  Fire  Brigade. — A  hospital  should  have  a  well- 
organized  and  drilled  private  or  hospital  fire  brigade. 
Hospitals  within  the  city  limits  do  not  require  as  full 
an  equipment  as  those  located  at  the  outskirts  or  in 
the  country. 

All  hospital  attendants  and  employees  should  be  in- 
structed in  the  use  and  handling  of  the  hospital  fire 
apparatus.  In  case  of  an  outbreak  of  fire  each  man 
should  have  a  fixed  designated  place,  and  a  known  duty 
to  perform. 

Practice  drills  should  be  held  at  regular  intervals, 
and  also  occasionally  without  previous  notice. 

The  hospital  should  issue  a  special  "fire  manual,"  with 
which  every  employee  should  make  himself  familiar. 


222  SANITATION   OF  PUBLIC  BUILDINGS. 

Fire  Districts. — Plan  of  Districts;  Location  of  Hy- 
drants and  Fire  Alarm  Boxes. — A  large  hospital,  com- 
posed of  a  group  of  buildings,  should  be  divided  into  fire 
districts.  A  plan  or  map  of  the  hospital  and  grounds 
should  be  prepared  to  show  the  division  into  fire  dis- 
tricts, also  the  location  of  all  outside  hydrants,  inside 
fire-valves  and  of  the  fire-alarm  boxes. 

The  plan  should  also  show  the  water  supply  system, 
the  special  fire  mains  if  any  are  provided,  also  the  loca- 
tion of  the  fire-pump,  of  the  hose  house,  etc. 

Fire  Escapes  and  Fireproof  Stairs. — Each  of  the  build- 
ings of  a  hospital  should  have  at  least  two  separate  and 
independent  staircases.  Each  of  the  larger  wards  should 
have  two  exits  with  doors  opening  outwards.  The  build- 
ings should  also  be  provided  with  approved  outside  fire- 
escapes,  of  such  construction  that  they  may  be  safely 
used  by  those  patients  who  are  not  confined  to  their 
beds. 

Rules  as  to  Fire  Prevention. — A  hospital  should  have 
some  printed  rules  on  fire  prevention,  which  every  em- 
ployee  and  each  nurse  should  study.  The  rules  should 
relate  to  the  use  and  care  of  matches,  of  oily  rags  and 
wastes,  to  the  management  of  the  heating  apparatus 
and  of  the  steam-pipes,  to  the  electric  light  wiring,  the 
care  of  laundries,  and  drying  rooms,  etc. 

I  quote  a  few  paragraphs  from  such  rules  prepared 
by  an  English  firm  of  manufacturers  of  fire  protection 
apparatus : 

"It  is  intended  that  the  following  rules  should  be  fre- 
quently and  carefully  considered  by  all  employed  on 
the  hospital  premises: 


APPENDICES.  223 


PRECAUTIONS  AGAINST  FIRE. 

Matches  and  Tapers.^ — "Great  caution  is  necessary  in 
the  use  of  matches  and  tapers,  the  safe  extinction  of 
which  after  use  should  be  made  certain.  Only  the 
so-called  "safety"  matches  should  be  used  in  a  hos- 
pital. 

Watchman's  Lamp. — "  A  covered  light  or  watchman's 
lamp  should  be  used,  not  only  by  the  watchman,  but 
by  the  attendants,  on  night  duty. 

Smoking. — "In  hospitals  and  other  public  institu- 
tions smoking  should  be  permitted  only  in  the  apart- 
ments specially  reserved  for  this  purpose. 

Fires  in  Grates. — "Fires  in  open  fire-places  and  grates 
should  not  be  taken  out  or  raked  out  on  the  hearth, 
but  the  embers  should  be  put  back  in  such  a  way  as  to 
prevent  their  falling  off,  thus  allowing  the  fire  to  die 
out  in  its  proper  place.  Wood  or  other  fuel,  intended 
to  be  used  in  the  grate  the  next  morning,  should  not 
be  placed  in  close  proximity  to  the  heated  grate. 

Flues. — "Care  should  be  taken  that  flues  are  properly 
constructed  and  kept  clean. 

Gas. — Gas  Leakage. — Jointed  Gas  Brackets. — "Gas 
should  be  carefully  turned  out  when  no  longer  required. 
If  an  escape  of  gas  occurs,  the  doors  and  windows  should 
be  opened  at  once.  The  gas  leak  should  be  traced  by 
the  sense  of  smell  only  if  possible.  The  greatest  cau- 
tion should  be  employed  in  the  introduction  of  a  light. 
This  should  never  be  used  until  windows  and  doors  have 
been  kept  open  for  some  time,  while  the  gas  has  been 
turned  off  at  the  main  gas  meter. 


224  SANITATION   OF   PUBLIC   BUILDINGS. 

"Care  should  be  taken  that  no  inflammable  material 
is  within  reach  of  any  jointed  gas  brackets. 

Accumulation  of  Waste  Material: — "The  accumula- 
tion of  waste  material  of  any  description  should  on  no 
account  be  permitted  in  any  part  of  the  premises.  Fires 
have  been  caused  by  the  throwing  of  hot  ashes  into 
dust  bins. 

Smell  of  Fire  not  to  be  Disregarded. — "On  no  account 
should  the  slightest  smell  of  fire  or  smoke  be  allowed 
to  pass  unheeded,  but  the  cause  should  at  once  be  ascer- 
tained. Many  serious  fires,  caused  by  defective  hearths 
and  flues,  stove-pipes  passing  through  floors  or  walls, 
etc.,  might  have  been  subdued  at  their  outbreak  if  this 
precaution  had  betii  attended  to. 

Everyone  Should  be  Used  to  the  Fire  Appliances. — Fire 
Drill. — "Every  person  employed  on  the  premises  should 
be  made  acquainted  with  the  use  and  positions  of  the 
fire  hydrants,  fire  valves,  and  other  fire  protection  appa- 
ratus in  the  building.  This  apparatus  should  be  thor- 
oughly overhauled  and  cleaned  at  least  four  times  a 
year.  These  occasions  would  be  convenient  opportu- 
nities for  fire  drill. 

"Everyone  should  be  fully  instructed  as  to  an  alter- 
native means  of  escape,  in  case  the  flight  by  the  ordinary 
staircase  should  be  cut  off.  All  apparatus  necessary  for 
this  purpose  should  be  periodically  inspected  and  tested. 

IN  CASE  OF  AN  OUTBREAK  OP  FIRE. 

Extinguishing  Fire. — "  A  jet  from  a  portable  hand 
extinguisher  will  frequently  be  sufficient  to  subdue  a 
fire  in  its  incipiency,  or  a  pail  of  water  may  be  used  with 


APPENDICES.  225 

good  results,  but  in  any  case  the  hose  from  the  nearest 
stand-pipe  fire  valve  should,  in  the  meantime,  be  run 
out.  The  hose  nozzle  should  be  brought  as  near  to 
the  fire  as  possible,  in  order  that  the  full  force  of  the 
jet  may  be  utilized.  Sudden  bends  or  kinks  in  the 
hose  should  be  avoided,  as  they  not  only  reduce  the 
water  pressure  at  the  nozzle,  but  also  place  the  hose  in 
danger  of  bursting.  Care  should  always  be  taken  to 
avoid  unnecessary  damage  by  a  too  plentiful  applica- 
tion of  water. 

Removal  of  Inmates. — "If  the  fire  is  judged  to  be 
dangerous,  it  will  be  of  the  utmost  importance  to  secure 
the  immediate  removal  from  the  premises  of  all  per- 
sons except  those  engaged  in  extinguishing  the  fire  or 
removing  property.  The  fact  of  a  fire  having  broken 
out  should  be  conveyed  to  the  sick  as  calmly  as  possible. 

Escape. — "If  patients  of  a  hospital  are  in  bed  at  the 
time  of  an  outbreak  of  fire,  they  should  be  dressed  by 
the  attendants  with  whatever  is  readily  available,  and 
on  leaving  the  rooms,  all  the  doors  should  be  closed. 
The  escape  should  be  effected  either  by  the  regular 
stairs,  if  possible,  of  else,  if  this  is  no  longer  possible, 
the  alternative  measures  previously  arranged  for,  by  the 
roof,  or  by  fire  escapes,  should  be  at  once  made  use  of. 

Send  Alarm  to  Nearest  Fire  Station. — "An  attendant 
should  at  once  give  the  alarm  to  the  nearest  fire  engine- 
house,  without  waiting  to  see  whether  those  on  the 
spot  are  likely  to  be  able  to  extinguish  the  fire  or  not. 

Keep  Doors  Shut. — "It  is  of  the  utmost  importance 
to  shut,  as  far  as  possible,  and  keep  shut,  all  doors, 
windows,  and  other  openings  to  the  outer  air. 


226          SANITATION  OF  PUBLIC  BUILDINGS. 

Free  Breathing. — "In  the  midst  of  much  smoke,  the 
air  is  comparatively  clear  towards  the  floor,  conse- 
quently progress  may  be  made  on  the  hands  and  knees, 
keeping  the  face  as  low  as  possible.  A  wet  silk  handker- 
chief, sponge,  worsted  stocking,  or  other  flannel  sub- 
stance, drawn  over  the  mouth  and  the  nostrils,  permits 
free  breathing,  and  to  a  great  extent  excludes  the  smoke 
from  the  lungs. 

Turn  Off  the  Gas  at  the  Meter.—"  Should  the  outbreak 
of  fire  promise  to  be  serious,  the  gas  should  be  turned 
off  at  the  meter. 

Coolness  and  Presence  of  Mind. — "The  want  of  cool- 
ness and  presence  of  mind  on  such  occasions  is  by  far 
the  greatest  hindrance  to  the  preservation  of  life  and 
property.  In  dealing  with  fire,  a  cool  judgment  and 
steady  perseverance  are  far  more  effective  than  any 
impetuous  and  fitful  exertions  that  may  be  made. 

Clothing  on  Fire. — "In  the  case  of  the  clothes  of  the 
person  of  any  one  taking  fire,  a  hearth  rug  or  blanket 
or  anything  else  similar  readily  available  should  be  at 
once  rolled  around  the  body,  thus  smothering  and  crush- 
ing out  the  flames.  If  there  be  no  helper  at  hand,  the 
person  whose  clothes  are  in  flames,  should  roll  himself 
or  herself  over  and  over  on  the  floor.  On  no  account 
should  he  or  she  rush  about  from  one  room  to  another, 
for  this,  of  course,  only  fans  the  flames  into  more  fury 
and  makes  the  consequences  more  serious." 

Many  of  the  foregoing  rules  and  hints  are  also  applic- 
able to  school  buildings. 

For  further  particulars  on  this  subject  see: 


APPENDICES.  .  227 

DR.  P.  M.  WISE,  "Fire  Manual  of  the  St.  Lawrence 
State  Hospital." 

L.  H.  PRINCE,  "The  Fire  Protection  of  Hospitals  for 
Insane." 

WM.  PAUL  GERHARD,  "The  Prevention  of  Fire,  chiefly 
with  reference  to  Hospitals  and  other  Public  Institu- 
tions." 

WM.  PAUL  GERHARD,  "Theatre  Fires  and  Panics; 
Their  Causes  and  Prevention." 

APPENDIX   B. 

From  a  report  by  H.  Endemann,  Ph.D.,  on  "Chemical 
Examination  of  the  Air  of  Various  Public  Buildings," 
the  following  notes  are  taken  relative  to  air  contam- 
ination in  some  of  the  theatres  of  New  York  City.  This 
matter  appeared  in  the  third  annual  report  of  the  New 
York  Board  of  Health  in  1873. 

"In  examining  the  air  of  theatres  and  public  halls,  it  is 
to  be  taken  into  consideration  that  in  these  cases  we  have 
two  sources  for  the  carbonic  acid  in  the  air,  the  one  being  res- 
piration, the  other  the  combustion  of  illuminating  gas.  The 
latter  item,  on  examination,  proved  to  be  of  immense  import- 
ance. 

"In  some  special  cases,  the  proportion  was  approximately 
determined  with  the  aid  of  the  theatre  statistics,  giving  the 
number  of  persons  present  in  the  theatre  on  the  particular 
evening  when  the  examination  was  made,  and  the  amount 
of  gas  consumed  per  hour.  It  was  thus  ascertained  that,  in 
one  theatre  with  slim  attendance,  the  proportion  of  carbonic 
acid  formed  by  respiration  to  that  formed  by  combustion  of 
gas  was  as  i  to  7.  In  another  theatre,  with  a  full  house,  the 
proportion  was  found  to  be  as  i  to  4^,  and  even  in  the  most 
crowded  and  poorest  illuminated  theatres  the  proportion 
would  not  become  less  than  i  to  2,  so  that  even  under  the 


228 


SANITATION   OF  PUBLIC  BUILDINGS. 


Number 
Audienc 


in  w  in 
3  3  3 
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o  o 

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T3 

d 

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33 


ctf  o 


o  0 


§§ 


II 


03  0  0  0 


IIII 

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1111 


82 


NO   O  vO 


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CM    CM    CM 


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c3  c3  cj  cii 


Vs  s 

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00+ 


Stadt  Theatre 
Stadt  Theatre 
Bowery  Theatre 
Bowery  Theatre 


Niblo's  Garden 
Wallack's  Theatre 


ss 


'C  CTJ-d 
CD  o3  C  C 
43  >^  o3  o3 


g  cu  eu 
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ON  *?  ^? 


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IT)  10  10  10 


00  00    ON  O 


5 


CM    CM     CM 

oo  oo  oo 


CM    CM     CM    CM 
t^  t^  t-»«  t^ 

00  00  00  00 


CM    CM     CM     CM 

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o  o  o 

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o3  o3  oj 


43^:  cj 


ON  ON  ON  ON 

'a:crcrH 


APPENDICES.  229 

least  favorable  circumstances,  but  one-third  of  all  the  carbonic 
acid  found  could  be  due  to  respiration.  Taking  it  for  granted 
that  the  dangerous  properties  of  a  vitiated  atmosphere  grow 
more  in  proportion  to  the  organic  vapor  present  than  with 
the  carbonic  acid  alone,  the  importance  of  this  consideration 
becomes  at  once  evident." 

The  preceding  tabulated  statement  gives  the  results 
obtained. 

APPENDIX  C. 

In  the  year  1905,  the  New  York  Butchers'  Dressed 
Meat  Company  opened  'its  new  abattoirs,  located  in 
Eleventh  Avenue,  between  Thirty-ninth  and  Fortieth 
Streets,  a  plant  representing  an  outlay  of  one  and  one- 
half  millions  of  dollars,  and  which  is  said  to  be  the 
most  complete  of  its  kind  in  the  United  States.  The 
following  short  description  of  it  is  taken  from  the  New 
York  Times: 

"The  main  building,  of  brick  and  iron,  is  six  stories  high. 
It  is  connected  with  the  company's  own  piers  at  the  foot  of 
West  Thirty-ninth  Street. 

"When  the  steers  are  driven  from  the  cars  a  gate  is  closed 
behind  them  at  Thirty-ninth  Street  and  Eleventh  Avenue, 
and  they  follow  two  big  white  bell  wethers  up  a  series  of  in- 
clines until  they  arrive  on  the  roof  of  the  big  building  where 
the  pens  are  located. 

"On  a  mezzanine  floor,  also  open  to  the  air  and  below  the 
beef  pens,  are  pens  for  calves,  sheep,  and  lambs.  No  hogs 
are  slaughtered,  as  the  whole  establishment  is  carried  on  in 
"kosher"  fashion. 

'On  the  floor  below  the  roof  is  the  slaughtering  room,  with 
the  newest  machinery.  This  room  is  20  feet  high,  and  so 
arranged  that  all  offal  is  at  once  disposed  of.  Every  bit  of 
the  by-product,  down  to  the  last  tuft  of  hair,  is  utilized. 

"The    killing    is    done    by    eight    'schochets',    or    licensed 


230         SANITATION   OF   PUBLIC   BUILDINGS. 

slaughterers,  under  the  supervision  of  Rabbi  Philip  Klein,  who 
sees  to  it  that  every  detail  of  the  Mosaic  law  is  carried  out. 
"The  steers  are  driven  into  small  pens  ranged  on  one  side 
of  the  room.  The  '  schochet '  passes  his  long  keen-edged  knife 
to  the  head-man,  who  carefully  tries  it  on  his  thumb  nail  to 
see  that  there  is  no  nick  in  its  keen  edge.  Should  a  killer 
use  a  nicked  knife  the  meat  would  be  'trafe'  and  could  not 
be  eaten  by  the  orthodox  Jews. 

"Suddenly  the  door  of  the  pen  raises.  Quick  as  a  flash  a 
butcher  has  thrown  a  chain  round  the  hind  legs  of  the  steer, 
and  by  touching  a  button  the  huge  body  is  whirled  into  the 
air.  As  the  head  swings  around  the  *  schochet'  draws  his  long 
knife  across  the  animal's  throat,  severing  the  windpipe  and 
jugular  vein.  It  is  claimed  that  this  is  the  most  humane  and 
cleanly  method  of  slaughtering. 

"Then  the  butchers  get  to  work,  and  in  a  twinkling  the 
halves  of  the  beef  are  hanging  on  trolleys  ready  to  be  taken 
down  to  the  refrigerating  rooms.  There  are  fifteen  of  these 
rooms  in  the  building,  in  which  a  temperature  of  34  degrees 
Fahrenheit  is  maintained.  The  rooms  have  a  capacity  of 
14,000  quarters  of  beef.  Exactly  the  same  methods  are  used 
in  killing  the  small  animal  stock,  the  carcasses  of  which  are 
kept  in  separate  cooling  rooms. 

"Across  the  street,  at  the  corner  of  Thirty-ninth  Street  and 
Eleventh  Avenue,  is  the  poultry  department'.  This  department 
is  not  under  the  'kosher'  law. 

"In  the  near  future  the  company  will  receive  carcasses  from 
independent  packers  in  the  West  and  distribute  them  on  com- 
mission. The  capacity  is  now  4000  carcasses  a  week,  although 
but  2500  cattle  will  be  slaughtered  for  some  time." 

Very  complete  technical  and  illustrated  descriptions 
of  this  model  abattoir  are  given  in  the  Engineering 
Record  of  June  30,  1906,  and  in  The  American  Archi- 
tect of  June  20,  1906. 

The  following  description  of  a  model  slaughter-house 
equipped  with  a  refrigerating  plant,  is  quoted  from  the 
American  Architect: 


APPENDICES.  231 

"This  plant  was  designed  to  be  erected  in  the  City  of  New 
Orleans,  and  comprises  a  stockyard,  a  slaughter  house,  and 
salesrooms  both  for  local  trade  and  for  shipping  by  refrigerator 
cars.  It  is  fitted  out  with  all  the  latest  scientific  and  sanitary 
appliances  used  for  handling  the  stock  in  the  best  manner, 
housing  them  to  the  best  advantage  in  the  stockyards,  and 
for  killing  them  in  the  slaughterhouse. 

"The  most  interesting  and  most  important  part  of  the  plant 
is  the  several  stages  of  cooling  to  which  the  meat  is  subjected 
before  it  is  in  shape  to  keep  any  length  of  time  or  to  be  used 
at  once.  The  plant  is  planned  to  allow  the  increasing  of  the 
capacity  by  the  simple  addition  of  adjoining  buildings,  with- 
out in  the  least  interfering  with  the  present  arrangements  of 
the  slaughter-houses  and  refrigerators;  space  being  left  in  the 
engine-room  for  an  additional  refrigerating-machine  and  for 
brine  tanks.  The  last-named  is  the  secret  of  the  success  of 
the  business  of  preparing  refrigerated  meat.  Ice  itself  is  not 
used  at  all,  but  the  slaughterhouses,  the  chill  rooms,  the  stor- 
age- and  salesrooms  are  so  supplied  with  pipes  from  the  refriger- 
ating-machine as  to  allow  these  several  rooms  to  be  kept  at 
the  several  required  temperatures.  The  meat,  as  it  comes 
from  the  killing  beds,  is  allowed  to  stand  a  certain  length  of 
time,  in  accordance  with  the  temperature  of  the  atmosphere, 
after  which  it  is  placed  in  the  cooling  boxes  or  chilling  rooms 
to  remove  the  animal  heat.  It  is  then  taken  to  the  wholesale 
store  rooms,  which  are  kept  at  a  temperature  allowing  it  to 
be  preserved  for  an  almost  indefinite  length  of  time  if  so  de- 
sired. 

"From  the  store-rooms,  in  which  the  meat  hangs  very  close 
together,  it  is  removed  to  the  retail  store-rooms  or  show-rooms, 
where  it  hangs  on  each  side  of  an  alley,  down  which  the  sales- 
man and  purchaser  walk  to  inspect  the  meat.  After  the  pur- 
chase, the  beef,  mutton,  lamb,  pork,  or  veal,  is  taken  off  the 
show  tracks,  hung  on  the  delivery  track  and  sent  out  to  the 
sales-room,  where  after  being  weighed  it  is  removed  by  the  buyer, 
sent  back  to  the  refrigerator  for  temporary  storage,  or  else 
shipped  in  the  refrigerator-cars. 

"During  all  this  progress,  from  the  killing-beds  in  the 
slaughter-house  to  the  buyers'  wagon  or  car,  the  meat  is  sus- 
pended from  an  overhead  single-track  railroad,  hung  to  hooks 
on  rollers,  which  travel  on  the  overhead  tracks. 


232  MTATION    OF   PUBLIC   BUILDi: 

"The  tracks  are  continued  from  the  beds  out  over  the  scales 
and  down  to  the  corner  doors  and  into  the  several  refriger- 
ators, with  numerous  switches,  branches,  cut-outs,  etc.,  needed 
to  move  the  meat  without  lifting  it  by  hand. 

"The  slaughter-houses  are  fitted  up  with  exhaust  fans  for 
mechanical  ventilation,  to  assist  the  natural  ventilation  in 
very  hot  weather.  They  have  water-tight  floors,  separate 
pipes  for  blood  and  waste,  a  platform  upon  which  the  offal 
is  wheeled  and  dumped  into  a  car,  and  then  it  travels  on  the 
railroad  tracks  to  the  rendering-house,  which  is  well  removed 
from  the  refrigerators. 

"The  abattoirs  have  improved  catch -pens,  power  from  the 
engine  in  the  power-house,  abundance  of  light  and  ventilation 
from  side  windows  through  slat  headlights,  and  turret  or  moni- 
tor skylights.  The  refrigerators  are  insulated  with  asphaltum 
sheathing  paper  and  }"  tongued  and  grooved  boards,  forming 
a  series  of  air  spaces,  the  doors  being  some  6  or  8  inches  thick, 
with  air  spaces  and  rubber  on  edges,  and  the  windows  having 
four  sashes,  all  being  as  near  to  air-tight  as  possible. 

"  An  important  feature  of  the  plant  is  the  fact  of  its  being 
built  on  the  slow-burning  construction  principle.  That  is, 
the  first  floor  is  5  or  6  inches  thick  and  rests  on  girders  about 
8  or  9  feet  apart,  the  roof  being  formed  the  same  way,  with 
3  or  4  inch  planks  and  girders  about  10  feet  apart.  The  ad- 
vantages of  this  method  of  building  are  many,  chief  among 
which  is  the  fact  of  there  being  no  enclosed  spaces  for  the 
harboring  of  vermins  as  in  the  ordinary  construction,  and  the 
rates  of  insurance  being  greatly  in  its  favor,  as  is  shown  by  the 
rates  on  the  mills  built  in  this  manner.  The  particular  benefit 
of  this  timber  flooring  in  refrigerators  is  not  so  much  the  reduc- 
tion of  insurance,  which,  of  course,  is  low  from  the  nature  of 
the  business,  and  the  use  of  electric  lights,  but  because  by 
using  this  flooring  the  hangers  by  which  the  tracks  are  sup- 
ported can  be  placed  in  any  spot,  regardless  of  the  beams  and 
girders;  whereas  the  old  method  of  securing  the  hangers  was 
to  locate  the  floor -joists  with  reference  especially  to  the  tracks, 
and  in  making  the  necessary  curves  and  switches  this  was  a 
very  difficult  task. 

"This  plant  is  arranged  with  the  view  of  having  the  busi- 
ness center  at  the  office  building,  on  each  side  of  which  are 
the  salesrooms,  one  for  beef  and  for  small  stock  (meaning 


:;: 


234  SANITATION   OF   PUBLIC   BUILDINGS. 


APPENDIX   D. 

Extract  from  "Regulations  governing  the  Meat 
Inspection  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
culture." 

(Issued  under  authority  conferred  on  the  Secretary  of 
Agriculture  by  the  act  of  Congress,  approved  June  30, 
1906.) 

SANITATION. 

REGULATION  10. — Upon  receipt  of  an  application  for  inspec- 
tion, the  Secretary  of  Agriculture  will  cause  to  be  made  an 
examination  of  the  premises,  and  will  indicate  the  require- 
ments for  sanitation  and  the  necessary  facilities  for  inspection. 

REGULATION  u. — In  order  that  the  carcasses  of  cattle,  sheep, 
swine,  and  goats,  and  the  meats  and  meat  food  products  thereof, 
may  be  admitted  to  interstate  or  foreign  commerce,  it  is  necess- 
ary under  the  law  that  the  establishments  in  which  the  ani- 
mals are  slaughtered,  or  the  meats  and  meat  food  products 
are  prepared,  cured,  packed,  stored,  or  handled,  shall  be  suit- 
ably lighted  and  ventilated  and  maintained  in  a  sanitary  con- 
dition. All  work  in  sueh  establishments  shall  be  performed 
in  a  cleanly  and  sanitary  manner. 

(a)  Ceilings,  side  walls,  pillars,  partitions,  etc.,  shall  be  fre- 
quently whitewashed  or  painted,  or,  where  this  is  impractic- 
able, they  shall,  when  necessary,  be  washed,  scraped,  or  other- 
wise rendered  sanitary.  Where  floors  or  other  parts  of  a 
building,  or  tables  or  other  parts  of  the  equipment,  are  so  old 
or  in  such  condition  that  they  cannot  be  readily  made  sani- 
tary, they  shall  be  removed  and  replaced  by  suitable  mate- 
rials or  otherwise  put  in  a  condition  acceptable  to  the  inspector 
in  charge.  All  floors  upon  which  meats  are  piled  during  the 
process  of  curing  shall  be  so  constructed  that  they  can  be  kept 
in  a  clean  and  sanitary  condition,  and  such  meats  shall  also 
be  kept  clean. 

(6)  All  trucks,  trays,  and  other  receptacles,  all  chutes,  plat- 
forms, racks,  tables,  etc.,  and  all  knives,  saws,  cleavers,  and 
other  tools,  and  all  utensils  and  machinery  used  in  moving, 


APPENDICES.  235 

handling,  cutting,  chopping,  mixing,  canning,  or  other  process, 
shall  be  thoroughly  cleansed  daily,   if  used. 

(c)  The    aprons,    smocks,    or    other    outer    clothing    of    em- 
ployees who  handle  meat  in  contact  with  such  clothing  shall 
be  of  a  material  that  is  readily  cleaned  and  made  sanitary, 
and  shall  be  cleansed  daily,  if  used.     Employees  who  handle 
meats  or  meat-food  products  shall  be  required  to  keep  their 
hands  clean. 

(d)  All    toilet-rooms,    urinals,    and    dressing-rooms    shall    be 
entirely  separated  from  compartments  in  which  carcasses  are 
dressed    or   meats    or    meat-food   products    are    cured,    stored, 
packed,    handled    or    prepared.     They    shall    be    sufficient    in 
number,  ample  in  size,  and  fitted  with  modern  lavatory  accom- 
modations, including  toilet  paper,  soap,  running-water,  towels, 
etc..     They  shall  be  properly  lighted,  suitably  ventilated,  and 
kept    in    a    sanitary    condition.     Managers    of    establishments 
must  see  that  employees  keep  themselves  clean.* 

(<?)  The  rooms  or  compartments  in  which  meats  or  meat- 
food  products  are  prepared,  cured,  stored,  packed,  or  other- 
wise handled,  shall  be  lighted  and  ventilated  in  a  manner  ac- 
ceptable to  the  inspector  in  charge  and  shall  be  so  located 
that  odors  from  toilet-rooms,  catch  basins,  casing  depart- 
ments, tank-rooms,  hide-cellars,  etc.,  do  not  permeate  them. 
All  rooms  or  compartments  shall  be  provided  with  cuspidors, 
which  employees  who  expectorate  shall  be  required  to  use. 

(/)  Persons  affected  with  tuberculosis  or  any  other  com- 
municable disease  shall  not  be  knowingly  employed  in  any 
of  the  departments  of  establishments  where  carcasses  are  dressed, 
meats  handled,  or  meat-food  products  prepared,  and  any 
employee  suspected  of  being  so  affected  shall  be  so  reported 
by  the  inspector  in  charge  to  the  manager  of  the  establish- 
ment and  to  the  Chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry. 

(g)  The  fattening  of  hogs  or  other  animals  on  the  refuse 
of  slaughter-houses  will  not  be  permitted  on  the  premises  of 
an  establishment  where  inspection  is  maintained,  and  no  use 
incompatible  with  proper  sanitation  shall  be  made  of  any 


*  This  paragraph  omits  the  very  important  requirement 
that  toilet-rooms  must  be  provided  entirely  separate  for  men 
and  for  women.  W.  P.  G. 


236          SANITATION   OF  PUBLIC  BUILDINGS. 

part  of  the  premises  on  which  such  establishment  is  located. 
All  yards,  fences,  pens,  chutes,  alleys,  etc.,  belonging  to  the 
premises  of  such  establishment  shall,  whether  they  are  used 
or  not,  be  maintained  in  a  sanitary  condition. 

(h)  Butchers  who  dress  diseased  carcasses  shall  cleanse 
their  hands  of  all  grease  and  then  immerse  them  in  a  prescribed 
disinfectant  and  rinse  them  in  clear  water  before  engaging 
again  in  dressing  or  handling  healthy  carcasses.  All  butchers' 
implements  used  in  dressing  diseased  carcasses  shall  be  cleansed 
of  all  grease  and  then  sterilized,  either  in  boiling  water  or  by 
immersion  in  a  prescribed  disinfectant,  and  rinsed  in  clear 
water  before  again  being  used  in  dressing  healthy  carcasses. 

Facilities  for  such  cleansing  and  disinfection,  approved  by 
the  inspector  in  charge,  shall  be  provided  by  the  establish- 
ment. Separate  trucks,  etc.,  shall  be  furnished  for  handling 
diseased  carcasses  and  parts.  Following  the  slaughter  of  an 
animal  affected  with  an  infectious  disease  a  stop  shall  be  made 
until  the  implements  have  been  cleansed  and  disinfected,  unless 
duplicate  implements  are  provided. 

(i)  Inspectors  are  required  to  furnish  their  own  knives  for 
use  in  dissecting  or  incising  diseased  carcasses  or  parts,  and 
are  required  to  use  the  same  means  for  disinfecting  knives, 
hands,  etc.,  that  are  prescribed  for  employees  of  the  establish- 
ment. 

(/)  Meats  and  meat-food  products  intended  for  rendering 
into  edible  products  must  be  prevented  from  falling  on  the 
floor,  while  being  emptied  into  the  tanks,  by  the  use  of  some 
device,  such  as  a  metal  funnel. 

(k)  Plans  of  new  plants  and  of  plants  to  be  remodeled  should 
be  submitted  to  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture. 


Extracts  from  "  Definitions  of  Words  and  Terms." 

CARCASS. — This  word  shall  mean  an  animal  that  has  been 
killed  under  these  regulations,  including  all  parts  which  are 
to  be  used  for  food. 

PRIMAL  PARTS  OF  CARCASS. — This  phrase  shall  mean  the 
usual  sections  or  cuts  of  the  dressed  carcass  commonly  known 
in  the  trade,  such  as  sides,  quarters,  shoulders,  hams,  backs, 
bellies,  etc.,  and  entire  edible  organs,  such  as  tongues,  livers, 


APPENDICES.  237 

etc.,  before  they  have  been  cut,  shredded,  or  otherwise  sub- 
divided preliminary  to  use  in  the  manufacture  of  meat-food 
products. 

MEAT-FOOD  PRODUCTS. — This  term  shall  mean  any  product 
used  for  food  "into  the  composition  of  which  any  portion  of 
the  carcass  enters,  or  in  the  preparation  of  which  any  portion 
of  the  carcass  is  used,  including  lard,  mince-meat,  extracts, 
gelatin,  oleomargarine,  butterine,  soups,  etc. 


• 
UNIVERSITY   ] 


?X 

OF  THE      ' 


ALPHABETICAL  INDEX. 


A 

PAGE 

Abattoirs 175.  l86 

buildings  composing  an 196 

development  of 19* 

drainage  of 204 

European 208 

lighting  of 205 

object  of 186 

planning  of 198 

private 19° 

sanitation   of 175 

sanitary  features  of 202 

sanitary  inspection  service  of 208 

site  for 195 

unsanitary  conditions  in 193 

Absorption    tiles 10 

Accident  room  in  schools 137 

Accumulation  of  waste  material 224 

Acoustics  in  theatres 70 

Action  of  waters  on  metals 16 

Adjuncts  of  slaughter-houses 198 

Administration  building,  for  abattoirs 197 

Advantages  of  public  or  municipal  markets 178 

of  rain  baths  in  schools 154 

of  central  abattoirs 188 

Air  supply  for  classrooms 141 

analysis  of,   in  theatres 69,   227 

compressors 17 

contamination  in  schools 142 

flushing  in  schools 141 

tanks 17 

239 


240  ALPHABETICAL    INDEX. 

PAGB 

Alarm  boxes,  fire 222 

Alarm  of  fire .  .  .  ^ 225 

Alignment  of  sewers 6 

Alum  in  filtration 1 8 

American  abattoirs 192 

Amount  of  water  required  for  hospitals 12 

Analysis,  biological,  of  water 14 

chemical,  of  water 14 

Apparatus,  fire  protection 146,  216 

Appendices - 215 

Area  of  school  grounds 120 

Areas ' 70,  112 

Arrangement  of  stage  dressing-rooms 67 

Arrangements,  sanitary  in  schools 146 

Artificial  lighting  of  churches 107 

illumination  of  classrooms 144 

Assembly  and  special  rooms  in  schools 128 

Aspect  of  schools 121 

Audiences,  in  theatres 68 

Auditorium  in  churches.  . 104 

Automatic  flushing 7 

sprinkler  system 220 

sprinklers,  for  laundry 51 

Axioms  for  hospital  construction 3 


B 

Back-air  pipes 24 

Bacterial  methods  of  sewage  purification 158 

Bakery 48 

Baptistry 113 

Basements  or  cellars  of  churches in 

Basement  of  schools 127 

toilet-rooms  in  schools 147 

Bathhouse  for  hospitals 41 

Bathroom  floors 38 

walls 39 

Bathrooms  for  hospital  wards 38 

for  officers  and  medical  staff 43 

Baths,  school 153 


ALPHABETICAL    INDEX.  241 

PAGE 

Bathtubs,   number  of,   for  hospital  wards 39 

Beautifying    school    grounds 122 

Berkefeld  filter 18 

Bibliography  of  abattoirs  and  markets 210 

on  churches 114 

on  hospital  sanitation 57 

on  schools 163 

on  theatres 86 

Biological  analysis  of  water 14 

methods  of  sewage  purification 205 

Blackboards 135 

Boiler-house,  for  abattoir 197 

Boiler-house  for  hospitals 51 

Boiler-room 81 

Boiler-room  in  school 124 

Boston  slaughter-houses 193 

market  in 178 

Boy's  urinals  for  schools ' 150 

Brass  floor  plates 30 

Piping .  .... 27 

Brigade,   fire 221 

Building  committee,  for  hospitals 3 

site  for  churches. 103 

Building,   exterior,  for  schools 129 

Buildings  composing  an  abattoir 196 

Butchers'  associations 190 

Butchers'   utensils 207 

By-products  of    slaughtering 197 


C 

Candle  illumination  in  theatres 82 

Candles,  for  schools 145 

in  churches 107 

Care  of  class-rooms 158 

of  toilet-rooms  in  schools 152 

Carpets 69,  107,  129 

dust  in 84 

Carts,  hose - 2 1 8 

Casings  for  pipes 26 


242  ALPHABETICAL  INDEX. 

PAGE 

Cattle  epidemics 189 

markets 180 

yards,  site  for 196 

Ceilings  and  floors  of  school  buildings 125 

of  class  rooms .' 125 

Cellars  for  markets 182 

in  churches 103,  no 

Cement  joints 7 

Central  abattoirs,  advantages  of 188 

chandelier,  in  theatres 82 

stock  yards 192 

Cesspools ii,  157 

Chamberlain-Pasteur  filter 18 

Chemical  analysis  of  water 14 

engines 218 

examination  of  air  in  theatres 227 

Chemical  precipitation 1 1 

Choice  of  site  for  schools 119 

Churches,  bibliography  on. 114 

Churches,  heating  of 108 

on  open  squares 103 

sanitary  defects  in 90 

sanitary  inspection  of 98 

Church  hygiene 97,  102 

Church  inspection,  by  board  of  health  in  Chicago 100 

in  New  York 98 

lighting 107 

Church  organs,  affected  by  temperature 109 

sanitation 89,   90,  95 

ventilation i  o  i 

Cisterns 8,  19 

City  hospitals 13 

Class  rooms,  cubic  space  of 132 

dimensions  of 130 

disposition  of 126 

doors  of i33 

floor  space  in 132 

height  of •  I31 

length  of I31 

standard  shape  of ' 13° 


ALPHABETICAL  INDEX.  243 

PAGE 

Class,  walls  of 124 

width  of 131 

Cleaning,  daily  in  schools 159 

periodical  in  schools 160 

Cleanliness,  in  hospitals 4 

in  theatres 83 

maintenance  of,  in  schools 158 

maintenance  of,  in  markets 184 

maintenance  of,  for  abattoirs 206 

Cleanouts 23,  30 

Closed  pressure  tanks 17 

Closets,  dry • 150 

outside,  for  schools 150 

Clothing,  on  fire 226 

Cold  storage  plant  for  markets 183 

Cold-storage  rooms 49 

Combined  sewerage,  for  hospitals .  .  .  5 

Concrete  foundations  for  pipes 7 

Condemned  food 185 

Conditions,  unsanitary  of  abattoirs 193 

Construction  features  of  abattoirs 200 

of  churches 103 

of  school  buildings 123 

Constructive  features  of  market  buildings 180 

Consumption  of  water  in  hospitals 13 

Contamination  of  air  in  schools 142 

Control  of  abattoirs  by  State  Board  of  Health 190 

of  temperature 143 

Corridors  of  school  buildings 125 

Country  school  buildings 121 

schools,  number  of  stories 127 

slaughter-houses 194 

Courts,  drainage  of 70 

Crude  discharge  of  sewage  into  streams 9 

Cubic  space  in  schools 132 

Curtain,  theatre 80 

Cushions,  seat " 107 


244  ALPHABETICAL  INDEX. 

D. 

PAGE 

Daily  cleaning  of  schools '. 159 

Daylight  illumination  of  schools 143 

Dead-house 52 

Decoration,  interior  in  schools 129 

of  boxes  in  theatres 84 

Deep  wells 15 

Defects,  sanitary,  in  churches 90 

Description  of  model  abattoir. . 229,  231 

of  refrigerating  plant  for  abattoir 231 

Design  of  ventilating  system  for  theatres 78 

Desks,  school. 135 

Details  of  construction  of  rain -baths  for  schools 155 

Development  of  the  abattoir 191 

of  the  market  building 176 

Dimensions  of  class  rooms 130 

Dirt  in  theatres 83 

Disinfectant,  use  of,  in  theatres 72 

Disinfecting  stations  for  hospitals 53 

Disinfection  of  schools 161 

Disinfection  of  sewage 54 

Dispensary 51 

Disposal,  garbage 53 

of  sewage 8 

of  sewage,  for  schools 157 

Disposition  of  class-rooms 126 

Distribution  pipes. 20 

Districts,  fire 222 

Doors  of  classrooms 132 

Downward  ventilation 78 

Drainage  and  sewerage  for  theatres 70 

of  abattoirs 204 

for  hospitals 5 

of  soil 8,  120 

of  sewage  field i  o 

plan 32 

Drains  for  rainwater 8 

Drain  testing 7 

Draperies 129 

Draughts 78 


ALPHABETICAL   INDEX.  245 

PAGE 

Dressing  of  animals     193 . 

Dressing  room  accommodations 8 1 

lavatories 74 

Dressing  rooms  in  theatres 66 

Drill,  fire 224 

Drinking  fountains 153 

Drinking  water  filters 18 

for  theatres 86 

Dripping  of  vent  lines 31 

Drug  store  and  dispensary 51 

Dry-closets : 150 

Drying-rooms 50 

Dust  and  rubbish  in  schools 161 

in  carpets  and  cushions  in  churches 107 

Dusting,  in  schools 159 

in  theatres 84 


E. 

Earth  closets 12 

for  schools 157 

Earthen  pipes 27 

Elevated  reservoir 17 

Electric  light  for  schools 144 

lighting  of  theatres 82 

Elevated  tanks 15,  17 

Employees'  water  closets 51 

Employment  of  engineering  specialists 101 

Engine  room,  in  theatres 77,  81 

Entrances,  in  churches 105 

in  school  buildings 125 

Equipment  of  markets 182 

mechanical  of  abattoirs „ 208 

Escapes,  fire 222 

European  abattoirs 209 

hospitals  visited 56 

Evils  of  private  slaughter-houses 186 

Exhaust  steam 32 

Exit  doors,  in  churches 105 


ALPHABETICAL  INDEX. 


PAGE 

Exits  of  school  buildings 126 

Exposed  plumbing 2  $ 

Exterior  of  school  building 129 

Extinguishing,  fire 224 

Extinguishers,  fire 220 


F. 

Fall  of  pipes. ...    29 

Features,  interior,  of  markets 181 

of  construction  of  abattoirs 200 

Filter  beds 10 

Filters,  for  drinking  water 17,  18 

Filtration,  of  water , ; 16 

Fire  alarm  system 220 

and  panic  in  churches 105 

brigade 221 

drill 224 

escapes  and  fireproof  stairs 222 

escapes  for  schools 127 

extinguishing  apparatus 216 

hose  for  hydrants 218 

hose  for  inside  use 219 

hydrants 217 

in  grates 223 

mains  and  water  mains 217 

pails 220 

protection  and  fire  prevention  in  hospitals 55,215 

protection  apparatus  in  schools 146 

pumps 217 

resisting  curtain 80 

safety  from,  in  schools .' 124 

service  supply,  for  theatres 75 

smell  of 224 

standpipes 218 

streams 15 

valves 219 

Fittings,  recessed 29 

Floor  construction,  of  markets 182 


ALPHABETICAL  INDEX.  247 

PAGE 

Floor,  drains 32 

flushing  in  markets l&4 

plates 30 

scrubbing 83 

space,  per  person,  in  theatres    86 

space  in  schools 132 

Floors  of  abattoirs 201,  207 

of  bathrooms 38 

of  class  rooms 125 

of  toilet  rooms 34 

number  of,  in  schools 126 

walls  and  partitions  of  toilet-rooms  in  schools 149 

Flues 223 

Flushing,  automatic 7 

of  floors 184 

of  water  closets 37 

with  air -  14"! 

Flush  tank  for  sewage  disposal 10 

Food  supplies 176 

Forms  of  baths  for  schools 154 

Foul  air,  removal  of,  in  schools r. .  .  .  142 

Fountains,  drinking 153 

Fresh  air  for  hospitals '. 4 

inlets,  for  theatres 68 

pipes 23 

Furnaces,  for  churches 109 

Furnace  heating  for  schools 138 

Furniture,  for  theatres 84 


G. 

Galleries,  of  market  buildings 183 

Gallery,  in  churches 104 

floor  space  in 86 

Garbage  cremator 53 

disposal  for  hospitals ......•......;.  53 

Gas  brackets,  jointed 223 

illumination  in  theatres 82 

light  for  schools 145 


248  ALPHABETICAL  INDEX. 

PAGE 

Gas  light,  in  churches 107 

Gauging  of  springs 15 

Gegenstrom  apparatus 55 

General  sanitation  in  theatres 83 

German  abattoirs 199 

hospitals  visited  and  inspected 56 

maxims  on  school  sanitation 117 

Germ  proof  filters , 86 

Government  meat  inspection 190 

Gravity  water  supply 17 

Gymnasium,  cleaning  of  the 160 

H. 

Halles  centrales  of  Paris 177 

Hand  extinguishers N. 220 

Hardness  of  water 16 

Heating  and  ventilation  of  abattoirs 206 

and  ventilation  of  churches 108 

and  ventilation  of  schools .  137 

apparatus,  for  churches 103 

by  hot  water,  for  schools 139 

by  steam,  for  schools 139 

by  stoves,  for  schools 138 

experts 139 

schools  by  furnaces 138 

systems  for  schools 137 

system  to  be  designed  by  experts * 139 

Height  of  classroom 131 

Hose  carts 218 

fire 218 

reels,  couplings  and  fire  nozzles 219 

tower  and  hose 221 

Hospital  bakery 48 

bathhouse 41 

bathrooms 38 

boiler-house 51 

construction 3 

fire  brigade 221 

fixtures,  catalogue 57 

kitchen 45 


ALPHABETICAL  INDEX.  249 


Hospital  laundry 49 

sanitation ...    3 

tubs. 40 

Hospitals,  bibliography  of  , 57 

European  visited.    56 

German ...    56 

Hot  blast  system  for  churches 109 

Hot  water  heating  for  schools 139 

supply  for  hospitals 54 

tank  for  theatres 76 

House  sewers 23 

tanks  for  theatres 76 

Hydrants, 217 

Hydraulic  engineering. 16 

Hygiene,  of  churches 89,  97 

of  schools 117 

of  theatres 65 

I. 

Ice  house 49 

Illumination,  artificial 144 

by  candles 82 

by  gas,  in  theatres 82 

daylight 143 

Immersion  pools 113 

Impounding  reservoir 16 

Incandescent  electric  lights 82 

In  case  of  an  outbreak  of  fire 224 

Independent  water  system 13 

Inside  fire  apparatus 216 

fire  standpipes     218 

Inspection,  medical,  of  schools    162 

of  water  supply  source 14 

sanitary,  of  churches 98 

sanitary,  of  schools 162 

service,  sanitary,  for  abattoirs 208 

Intake  for  water 14 

Interior  decoration  of  schools     129 

equipment  of  market  building 182 


2  So  ALPHABETICAL   INDEX. 


Interior  features  of  market  building. j8i 

Interiors  of  abattoirs 200 

Interlocked  rubber  tiling 85 

Intermittent  filtration  of  sewage o 

Investigation  of  Chicago  abattoirs 194 

Irrigation,  sewage 9 

Ironing  machines. , , 5o 


J. 

Janitors,  school 158 

Joints  of  vitrified  pipe 7 

Junctions  of  sewers 6 


K. 

Kitchen,  for  hospitals 45 

operations 47 

ranges,  for  hospitals 46 

sinks 46 


L. 

Lakes  as  source  of  water  supply 16 

Lampholes 7 

Lamp,  watchman's 223 

Land  drains 8 

Laundry,  for  hospitals 49 

plumbing 50 

tubs 50 

Lavatories  for  hospital  wards • 41 

for  stage  dressing-rooms 74 

in  schools .' 153 

types  of     42 

Leaching  cesspools 1 1 

Lead  pipes 29 

tank  linings 19 

Leakage  of  gas 223 

Leaky  sewer  pipes 68 


ALPHABETICAL  INDEX.  251 

PAGE 

Length  of  class  room 131 

Light  for  hospitals 4 

Lighting  by  windows,  for  schools 133 

of  abattoirs 205 

of  churches 107 

of  class  rooms 133 

of  markets 185 

of  schools 143 

of  theatres 82 

Linoleum  floor  covering 85 

Literature  on  theatres 86 

Local  vent  pipes ¥  .  32 

Location  of  kitchen 45 

of  hydrants 222 

of  markets 179 

of  schools 119 

of  theatres 67 

of  toilet-rooms  in  schools 146 

Lunch-room,  in  schools 163 

M. 

Main  slaughtering  hall 199 

Mains  for  water  distribution 20 

Maintenance  of  cleanliness  in  schools 158 

of  cleanliness  of  markets 184 

of  cleanliness  in  toilet  rooms 85 

Management  of  central  abattoirs 209 

Manholes .  7 

Manure,  disposal  of,  in  abattoirs 207 

Market  building,  development  of  the 176 

buildings  in  the  United  States 180 

halls,  ventilation  of 184 

interior  equipment  of 182 

Markets 175 

advantages  of >  .  .  • 178 

and  abattoirs,  bibliography  on 210 

constructive  features  of , 180 

for  cattle 1 80 

lighting  of 185 


252  ALPHABETICAL  INDEX. 

PAGE 

Markets,  location  of 179 

sanitation  of ! 75 

Matches  and  tapers 22.3 

Material  for  urinals 151 

Maxims  on  school  sanitation 117 

Meat  inspection 197 

inspection,  regulation  for 234 

Mechanical  equipment  of  abattoirs 208 

filters 17 

traps 25 

ventilation 78,  m 

Medical  inspections  of  schools 162 

Microscopical  examination  of  water 14 

Model  slaughter-houses 199 

Moistening  of  air 143 

Morin,  on  ventilation 78 

Mortuary 52 

Municipal  abattoirs 190 

N. 

New  York,  markets  in 178 

slaughter-houses 192 

Non-siphoning  traps 24 

Number  of  bathtubs  for  hospital  wards 39 

of  water-closets  required  for  pupils 149 

ot  floors  in  schoolhouse ". 126 

of  water  closets  for  wards. 34 

Nurses'  toilet-roorns 42 

O. 

Objections  to  outside  toilet  pavilions 147 

to  private  slaughter-houses 187 

Object  of  abattoirs 186 

Offal 185 

Oil  lamps  and  candles  for  schools 145 

One-pipe  system 25 

Open  plumbing 26 

Operating  rooms,  in  h'ospitals 43 


ALPHABETICAL  INDEX.  253 

PAGE 

Organized  slaughter-houses 186 

Organs,  in  churches,  affected  by  temperature 109 

Outside  closets  for  country  schools 150 

fire  apparatus 216 

toilet  rooms .' 147 

Overflow  pipes  from  house  tanks 20 


P. 

Packing  houses 195 

Pails,  fire 220 

Pan  closets,  in  theatres 72 

Panic,  in  churches,  precautions  against 105 

Pantry  in  hospitals 47 

sinks 47 

Paris  abattoirs 191 

Pavements  of  markets , 185 

Performers,  health  of 67 

Periodical  cleaning  of  schools 160 

Pipe  casings 26 

sewers 7 

Pipes,  inclination  of 29 

of  lead 29 

on  roofs 30 

vitrified 7 

Piping  of  brass 27 

Plan  and  construction  of  churches. 103 

of  drainage 32 

of  theatre  building 68 

Planning  of  abattoirs 198 

Play  grounds  for  schools 122 

Plumbing  details  for  hospitals 27 

exposed 25 

for  bakery. 48 

for  hospitals ». 21,  22 

in  synagogues T I4 

in  theatres 7  r 

of  churches II2 

of  theatres 7 1 

test  of 33 


254  ALPHABETICAL  INDEX. 

PAGE 

Pollution  of  water I4 

of  wells , !  5 

Position  of  windows  in  school  rooms 134 

Portable  chemical  engine 218 

Precautions  against  fire 223 

Pressure  tanks 1 5 

Principles  of  sanitation  in  churches ;  102 

Private  and  municipal  abattoirs. . '. 190 

slaughter-houses,  evils  of 186 

Privy  vaults i ! 

Protected  vestibules 125 

Protection  against  fire  in  schools 145 

Public  abattoirs 192 

Pumping  directly  into  mains 17 

plant 21 

station 15 

Pumps,  fire 217 

for  hospitals 51 

Pure  air  for  theatres 77 

Purification  of  sewage  for  hospitals 6 

plants  for  sewage,  for  abattoirs 205 

Q. 

Quality  of  water 14 

R. 

Racks,  fire  hose 219 

Rain  baths,  advantages  of 154 

construction  of 155 

for  hospitals 40 

Rain  water 16,  19 

cisterns 5 ,  8 

drains 8 

from  roofs  of  hospitals 5 

Ranges,  kitchen 46 

water  closet 149 

Recessed  fittings 29 

Reels,  hose 219 

Reforms,  sanitary,  in  theatres 70 


ALPHABETICAL  INDEX.  255 


Refrigerating  plant  for  abattoirs 208 

plant  for  markets 183 

'Refrigerators  for  markets 179 

Regulations  of  U.  S.  Department  of  agriculture 195 

Regulators  of  temperature 54 

Removal  of  foul  air  in  churches no 

of  inmates 225 

of  foul  air  in  schools 142 

of  waste  food  and  of  offal  from  markets 185 

Requirements  for  markets 181 

of  school  buildings 123 

of  sewer  systems 6 

of  ventilation  for  churches. no 

sanitary,  of  hospitals 4 

Reservoir,  impounding 16 

Retail  markets 179 

Roof  joints 30 

pipes 30 

ventilators  over  stage 80 

Rooms,  operating 43 

Rubber  tiling 85 

Rubbish,  in  schools 161 

of  theatres 83 

Rules  as  to  fire  prevention 222 

Running  traps 23 

S. 

Safety  from  fire ? 80,  124 

Sand  filters 17 

Sanitary  arrangements  in  schools 146 

conditions  in  churches 90 

conditions  in  theatres 69 

defects  in  churches 90 

features  of  abattoirs 202 

floor  covering  in  theatres 85 

furniture 84 

inspection  of  churches 98 

inspections  of  schools 162 

inspection  service  of  abattoirs 208 


256  ALPHABETICAL   INDEX. 

PAGE 

Sanitary  reforms  for  theatres 70 

requirements  for  hospitals 4 

school 117,  n8 

Sanitation  for  theatres 83 

in  churches 89 

of  churches 102 

of  markets  and  abattoirs 175 

of  public  places  of  amusement  and  churches 93 

Scenery \ 69 

Scenic  decorations 80 

School  baths 153 

bibliography 163 

building,  construction  of 123 

disinfection. 161 

fire  escapes 127 

grounds 120 

grounds,  trees  for 122 

hygiene 117 

janitors 158 

lavatories 153 

lighting 134 

play  grounds 123 

sanitation 118 

sanitary  inspections 162 

seats  and  desks 135 

sewerage  of 128,  156 

surroundings 120 

Screw  joints 28 

Scullery  sinks 47 

Seating  in  churches 106 

in  schools 135 

Security  from  fire 124 

Selection  of  site  for  hospitals 4 

Separate  system  of  sewerage  for  hospitals 5 

Service  pipes 21 

Service  pipes  in  theatres 76 

tanks 19 

Sewage  disposal 8 

disposal  of  hospitals 8 

disposal  for  schools 157 


ALPHABETICAL  INDEX.  257 

PAQK 

Sewage  disinfection  for  hospitals 54 

fanning 10 

irrigation , 9 

tanks 9 

Sewerage  and  plumbing  of  churches 112 

for  abattoirs 104 

for  hospitals 5 

in  theatres 70 

of  schools 128,  156 

Sewer  pipes,  leaky  in  theatres 68 

connections 70 

system,  requirements  of 6 

Shades,  window 135 

Shallow  wells 15 

Shape  and  dimensions  of  class-rooms 130 

Sinclair,  Upton,  author  of  the  "Jungle  " 194 

Sinks,  kitchen 46 

pantry 47 

scullery 47 

Site  for  abattoirs 195 

for  churches 103 

for  schools 119 

of  theatre 67 

selection  of,  for  hospitals 4 

Size  of  hospital  sewers 6 

of  lot  for  school  building 119 

of  water  mains 20 

Sizes  of  traps 31 

Slaughtering  processes 193 

hall 197,   199,  200 

Slopsinks 38 

for  theatres 74 

Smell  of  fire  not  to  be  disregarded 224 

Smoking 223 

Soil  for  school  buildings 120 

pipes 23 

underdrainage  of 8 

Source  of  water  supply 14 

Special  school  rooms 128 

Spray  baths  for  disinfecting  station 53 


258  ALPHABETICAL   INDEX. 

PAGE 

Spray  baths  for  hospitals 40 

for  theatres 74 

Springs I4|     j  5 

gauging  of x  5 

Sprinkler,  automatic ' 220 

Stage  floor 69 

dressing  rooms,  arrangement  of 67 

hands,  health  of 67 

machinery 70 

ventilation  of 80 

Staircases  of  school  buildings 125 

Stairs  in  churches 106 

Stalls,  for  markets 1 83 

Standard  shape  of  classroom 130 

Standpipes 17 

Steam  heating  in  churches 109 

Steam  heating  for  schools 139 

laundry 50 

mangles 50 

Sterilizing  of  utensils  of  butchers 207 

Storage  tanks 15 

Stoves  for  schools ( 138 

Straining  of  sewage 9 

Sub-cellar,  in  theatres 71 

Subdivision  of  hospital  buildings 33 

Subsidence . , 6 

Sub-surface  disposal. . . » 10 

Subterranean  springs 16 

Sunday-school 98,  103 

Sunlight  for  school  rooms 121 

Supply  by  pumping 17 

hot  water 54 

of  air  for  schools 141 

of  fresh  air  for  theatres 78 

of  water,  for  theatres 75 

of  water  for  abattoirs 202 

Surface  wells 15 

Surroundings  of  schools 120 

Sweeping  of  floors,  in  theatres 83 

Synagogues,  plumbing  for 114 


ALPHABETICAL   INDEX.  259 

PAGE 

Systems  of  heating  for  schools 137 

of  pumping 17 

System  of  theatre  ventilation 77 

of  water  supply  in  theatres 75 

T. 

Tank  towers 15 

Tanks,  elevated 15 

for  hot  water 54 

pressure 15 

Tapers 223 

Teachers'  toilets 148 

Test  of  plumbing 33 

Theatre,  architect 67 

audiences 68 

lighting 82 

managers 69 

plan  of 68 

plumbing 71 

sanitation 65 

site  of 67 

ventilation 76 

ventilation  systems .  .  77 

Theatres,  unsanitary  conditions  in 65 

Thermostats t 54 

Toilet  and  bathrooms  for  abattoirs 206 

rooms,  arrangement,  of  in  churches 113 

rooms,  basement 147 

rooms,  care  of 152 

rooms,  floors  of . 34 

rooms  for  churches 112 

rooms  for  nurses 42 

rooms,  for  theatres 72 

rooms  for  upper  floors  of  schools 148 

rooms,  in  schools 148 

rooms,  location  of 146 

rooms,  ventilation  of , 8i 

rooms,  ventilation  of  school 143 

rooms,  walls  of 34 


260  ALPHABETICAL   INDEX. 

PAOE 

Toilet  rooms,  walls,  floors  and  partitions 149 

Tower,  hose 221 

Trapping  of  fixtures 24 

Trap  screws 31 

Traps 24 

mechanical 45 

non-siphoning 24 

sizes  of 31 

Trees  on  school  grounds 122 

Tubs,  laundry 50 

Two-pipe  system 25 

Types  of  abattoirs 198 

of  school  urinals 151 

of  slaughtering  halls 1 199 

U. 

Underground  tanks 16 

Understage 68,  70 

Unsanitary  conditions  of  abattoirs 193 

conditions  in  theatres 65 

Upholstered  furniture 129- 

Upholstery,  in  theatres 84 

Upward  ventilation 78 

Urinals  for  hospital  wards 37 

for  boys .s 150 

in  theatres 73 

material  for 151 

types  of 151 

Use  of  alum  with  filters 18 

of  disinfectants  in  theatres 72 

Utilization  of  rainwater 5 

V. 

Valves,  fire 219 

Vaults,  privy 1 1 

Ventilating  registers  in  theatres 78 

Ventilation  for  abattoirs 206 

in  churches 101,  108 


ALPHABETICAL   INDEX.  261 

PAGE 

Ventilation  of  markets 184 

of  schools 137,  141 

of  stage 80 

of  theatres 76 

of  toilet-rooms  of  schools 143 

Vent  lines,  dripping  of 31 

Ventilators,  in  roof  of  stage 80 

Vestibules,  in  churches 125 

Vitrified  pipe 7 

W. 

Walls,  of  bathrooms 39 

of  class  ro®ms 124,  133 

of  school  building 124 

of  toilet  rooms 34 

Wardrobes  in  schools 136 

Washdown  closets 73 

Waste  food,  removal  of 185 

material 224 

of  water 12 

pipes 23 

water  purification  for  abattoirs 205 

Watchman's  closet  accommodation,  for  theatres 67 

closet  fixtures -35 

closet  fixtures  suitable  for  schools 148 

lamp 223 

Water  closet  ranges 149 

closet  rooms  and  fixtures  for  hospital  wards 34 

closets 32 

closets  for  employees,  in  hospitals 51 

closets  for  schools 148 

closets,  number  of,  for  wards 34 

closets,  number  required,  for  pupils 149 

consumption  in  hospitals 13 

distribution  for  abattoirs 203 

filtration 16 

pollution     14 

shed,  inspection  of 14 

supply,  for  fire  protection 12,   55,  75 


262  ALPHABETICAL    INDEX. 

PAGE 

Water  supply  of  abattoirs 202 

supply  of  hospitals 12 

supply  system  in  theatres 75 

quality  of 14 

tanks 19 

Wells 14 

deep 15 

Width  of  classroom 131 

Window  shades  in  schools 135 

Windows  for  schools 134 

Woodwork,  in  markets 182 

Wrought  iron  pipes 28 


SHORT-TITLE     CATALOGUE 

OF  THE 

PUBLICATIONS 

OP 

JOHN   WILEY   &    SONS, 

NEW  YORK. 
LOKDON:  CHAPMAN  &  HALL,  LIMITED. 


ARRANGED  UNDER  SUBJECTS. 


Descriptive  circulars  sent  on  application.  Books  marked  with  an  asterisk  (*)  are  sold 
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Publishers'  Association  at  net  prices  subject  to  an  extra  charge  for  postage.  All  book* 
are  bound  in  cloth  unless  otherwise  stated. 


AGRICULTURE. 

Armsby's  Manual  of  Cattle-feeding I2mo,  Si  75 

Principles  of  Animal  Nutrition 8vo,    4  oo 

Budd  and  Hansen's  American  Horticultural  Manual: 

Part  I.  Propagation,  Culture,  and  Improvement i2mo, 

Part  IL  Systematic  Pomology i2mo, 

Downing's  Fruits  and  Fruit-trees  of  America 8vo, 

Elliott's  Engineering  for  Land  Drainage lamo, 

Practical  Farm  Drainage i2mo, 

Green's  Principles  of  American  Forestry i2mo, 

Grotenfelt's  Principles  of  Modern  Dairy  Practice.     (Weil.) i2mo, 

Kemp's  Landscape  Gardening i2mo, 

Maynard's  Landscape  Gardening  as  Applied  to  Home  Decoration i2mo, 


50 
50 
oo 
50 
oo 
50 

00 

50 


Sanderson's  Insects  Injurious  to  Staple  Crops i2mo,  50 

Insects  Injurious  to  Garden  Crops.     (In  preparation.) 

Insects  Injuring  Fruits.     (In  preparation.) 

Stockbridge's  Rocks  and  Soils 8vo,  2  50 

Woll's  Handbook  for  Farmers  and  Dairymen i6mo,  i  50 

ARCHITECTURE. 

Baldwin's  Steam  Heating  for  Buildings I2mo,  2  50 

Bashore's  Sanitation  of  a  Country  House I2mo,  i  oo 

Berg's  Buildings  and  Structures  of  American  Railroads 4to,  5  oo 

Birkmire's  Planning  and  Construction  of  American  Theatres 8vo,  3  oo 

Architectural  Iron  and  Steel 8vo,  3  50 

Compound  Riveted  Girders  as  Applied  in  Buildings 8vo,  2  oo 

Planning  and  Construction  of  High  Office  Buildings 8vo  3  50 

Skeleton  Construction  in  Buildings 8vo,  3  oo 

Brigg's  Modern  American  School  Buildings 8vo,  4  oo 

Carpenter's  Heating  and  Ventilating  of  Buildings 8vo,  4  oo 

Freitag's  Architectural  Engineering 8vo,  3  50 

Fireproofing  of  Steel  Buildings 8vo,  2  50 

French  and  Ives's  Stereotomy 8vo,  2  50 

Gerhard's  Guide  to  Sanitary  House-inspection i6mo,  i  oo 

Theatre  Fires  and  Panics i2mo,  i  50 

Holly's  Carpenters'  and  Joiners'  Handbook i8mo,  75 

Johnson's  Statics  by  Algebraic  and  Graphic  Methods 8vo,  2  oo 


Kidder's  Architects'  and  Builders'  Pocket-book.  Rewritten  Edition.  i6mo,mor.,  3  oo 

Merrill's  Stones  for  Building  and  Decoration 8vo,    5  oo 

Non-metallic  Minerals:   Their  Occurrence  and  Uses 8vo,    4  oo 

Monckton's  Stair-building 4to,    4  oo 

Patton's  Practical  Treatise  on  Foundations 8vo,    5  oo 

Peabody's  Naval  Architecture Svo,    7  50 

Richey's  Handbook  for  Superintendents  of  Construction i6mo,  mor  ,    4  oo 

Sabin's  Industrial  and  Artistic  Technology  of  Paints  and  Varnish Svo,    3  oo 

Siebert  and  Biggin's  Modern  Stone-cutting  and  Masonry 8vo,     i  50 

Snow's  Principal  Species  of  Wood Svo,    3  50 

Sondericker's  Graphic  Statics  with  Applications  to  Trusses,  Beams,  and  Arches. 

Svo,    2     o 

Towne's  Locks  and  Builders'  Hardware iSmo,  morocco,    3  oo 

Wait's  Engineering  and  Architectural  Jurisprudence Svo,    6  oo 

Sheep,    6  50 

Law  of  Operations  Preliminary  to  Construction  in  Engineering  and  Archi- 
tecture  Svo,    5  oo 

Sheep,    5  50 

Law  of  Contracts Svo,    3  oo 

Wood's  Rustless  Coatings :   Corrosion  and  Electrolysis  of  Iron  and  Steel.  . Svo,    4  oo 

Woodbury's  Fire  Protection  of  Mills Svo,    2  50 

Worcester  and  Atkinson's  Small  Hospitals,  Establishment  and  Maintenance, 
Suggestions  for  Hospital  Architecture,  with  Plans  for  a  Small  Hospital. 

I2mo,     i  25 
The  World's  Columbian  Exposition  of  1893 Large  4to,     i  oo 

ARMY  AND  NAVY. 

Bernadou's  Smokeless  Powder,  Nitro-cellulose,  and  the  Theory  of  the  Cellulose 

Molecule i2mo,    2  50 

*  Bruff's  Text-book  Ordnance  and  Gunnery Svo,    6  oo 

Chase's  Screw  Propellers  and  Marine  Propulsion Svo,    3  oo 

Cloke's  Gunner's   Examiner Svo,     i   50 

Craig's  Azimuth 4to,  3  50 

Crehore  and  Squier's  Polarizing  Photo-chronograph Svo,  3  oo 

Cronkhite's  Gunnery  for  Non-commissioned  Officers 24mo,  morocco,  2  oo 

*  Davis's  Elements  of  Law Svo,  2  50 

*  Treatise  on  the  Military  Law  of  United  States Svo,    7  oo 

Sheep,  7  50 

De  Brack's  Cavalry  Outposts  Duties.     (Carr.) 24mo,  morocco,  2  oo 

Dietz's  Soldier's  First  Aid  Handbook i6mo,  morocco,  i  25 

*  Dredge's  Modern  French  Artillery 4to,  half  morocco,  15  oo 

Durand's  Resistance  and  Propulsion  of  Ships Svo,  5  oo 

*  Dyer's  Handbook  of  Light  Artillery i2mo,  3  oo 

Eissler's  Modern  High  Explosives Svo,  4  oo 

*  Fiebeger's  Text-book  on  Field  Fortification Small  Svo,  2  oo 

Hamilton's  The  Gunner's  Catechism iSmo,  i  oo 

*  Hoff's  Elementary  Naval  Tactics Svo,  i  50 

Ingalls's  Handbook  of  Problems  in  Direct  Fire Svo,  4  oo 

*  Ballistic  Tables Svo,     i  50 

*  Lyons'-s  Treatise  on  Electromagnetic  Phenomena.  Vols.  I.  and  II. .  Svo,  each,  6  oo 

*  Mahan's  Permanent  Fortifications.    (Mercur.) Svo,  half  morocco,  7  50 

Manual  for  Courts-martial i6mo,  morocco,  i  50 

*  Mercur's  Attack  of  Fortified  Places i2mo,  2  oo 

*  Elements  of  the  Art  of  War Svo,  4  oo 

Metcalf's  Cost  of  Manufactures — And  the  Administration  of  Workshops.  .8vo,  5  oo 

*  Ordnance  and  Gunnery.     2  vols i2mo,  5  oo 

Murray's  Infantry  Drill  Regulations iSmo,  paper,  10 

Rixon's  Adjutants'  Manual. 24010,  i  oo 

Peabody's  Naval  Architecture Svo,  7  50 

3 


*  i'helps's  Practical  Marine  Surveying 8vo,  2  50 

Powell's  Army  Officer's  Examiner i2mo,  4  oo 

Sharpe's  Art  of  Subsisting  Armies  in  War i8mo.  morocco,  i  50 

*  Walke's  Lectures  on  Explosives 8vo,  4  oo 

*  Wheeler's  Siege  Operations  and  Military  Mining 8vo,  2  oo 

Winthrop's  Abridgment  of  Military  Law I2mo,  2  50 

Woodhull's  Notes  on  Military  Hygiene i6mo,  i  50 

Young's  Simple  Elements  of  Navigation i6mo,  morocco,  i  oo 

Second  Edition,  Enlarged  and  Revised i6mo,  morocco,  2  oo 

ASSAYING. 

Fletcher's  Practical  Instructions  i.%  Quantitative  Assaying  with  the  Blowpipe. 

i2mo,  morocco,  i  50 

Furman's  Manual  of  Practical  Assaying 8vo,  3  oo 

Lodge's  Notes  on  Assaying  and  Metallurgical  Laboratory  Experiments.  .  .  .8vo,  3  oo 

Miller's  Manual  of  Assaying i2mo,  i  oo 

O'Driscoli's  Notes  on  the  Treatment  of  Gold  Ores 8vo,  2  oo 

Ricketts  and  Miller's  Notes  on  Assaying 8vo,  3  oo 

Ulke's  Modern  Electrolytic  Copper  Refining 8vo,  3  oo 

Wilson's  Cyanide  Processes i2mo,  i  50 

Chlorination  Process .' i2rno,  i  50 

ASTRONOMY. 

Comstock's  Field  Astronomy  for  Engineers 8vo,  2  50 

Craig's  Azimuth 4to,  3  5<> 

Doolittle's  Treatise  on  Practical  Astronomy 8vo,  4  oo 

Gore's  Elements  of  Geodesy 8vo,  2  50 

Hayford's  Text-book  of  Geodetic  Astronomy 8vo,  3  oo 

Merriman's  Elements  of  Precise  Surveying  and  Geodesy 8vo,  2  50 

*  Michie  and  Harlow's  Practical  Astronomy 8vo,  3  oo 

*  White's  Elements  of  Theoretical  and  Descriptive  Astronomy I2mo,  2  oo 

BOTANY. 

Davenport's  Statistical  Methods,  with  Special  Reference  to  Biological  Variation. 

i6mo,  morocco,     i  25 

Thome'  and  Bennett's  Structural  and  Physiological  Botany i6mo,     2  25 

Westermaier's  Compendium  of  General  Botany.     (Schneider.) 8vo,    2  oo 

CHEMISTRY. 

Adriance's  Laboratory  Calculations  and  Specific  Gravity  Tables I2mo,  i  25 

Allen's  Tables  for  Iron  Analysis 8vo,  3  oo 

Arnold's  Compendium  of  Chemistry.     (Mandel.) Small  8vo,  3  50 

Austen's  Notes  for  Chemical  Students I2mo,  i  50 

Bernadou's  Smokeless  Powder. — Nitro-cellulose,  and  Theory  of  the  Cellulose 

Molecule i2mo,  2  50 

Bolton's  Quantitative  Analysis 8vo,  i  50 

*  Browning's  Introduction  to  the  Rarer  Elements 8vo,  i  50 

Brush  and  Penfield's  Manual  of  Determinative  Mineralogy 8vo,  4  oo 

Classen's  Quantitative  Chemical  Analysis  by  Electrolysis.    (Boliwood.).  .8vo,  3  oo 

Cohn's  Indicators  and  Test-papers i2mo,  2  oo 

Tests  and  Reagents 8vo,  3  oo 

Crafts's  Short  Course  in  Qualitative  Chemical  Analysis.   (Schaeffer.).  .  .  i2mo,  i  50 
Dolezalek's  Theory  of  the  Lead  Accumulator   (Storage  Battery).        (Von 

Ende.) I2mo,  2  50 

Drechsel's  Chemical  Reactions.     (Merrill.) I2mo,  i  25 

Duhem's  Thermodynamics  and  Chemistry.     (Eurgess.) .8vo.  4  oo 

Eissler's  Modern  High  Explosives 8vo,  4  oo 

Effront's  Enzymes  and  their  Applications.     (Prescott.) 8vo,  3  oo 

Erdmann's  Introduction  to  Chemical  Preparations.     (Dunlap.) i2mo,  i  as 


Fletcher's  Practical  Instructions  in  Quantitative  Assaying  with  the  Blowpipe. 

lamo,  morocco,     i  50 

Fowler's  Sewage  Works  Analyses i2mo.    2  oo 

Fresenius's  Manual  of  Qualitative  Chemical  Analysis.     (Wells.) 8vo,    5  oo 

Manual  of  Qualitative  Chemical  Analysis.  Part  I.  Descriptive.  (Wells.)  8vo,    3  oo 
System   of    Instruction    in    Quantitative    Chemical   Analysis.      (Cohn.) 

2  vols 8vo,  12  50 

Fuertes's  Water  and  Public  Health „ i2mo,    i  50 

Furman's  Manual  of  Practical  Assaying 8vo,    3  oo 

*  Getman's  Exercises  in  Physical  Chemistry i2mo,'    2  oo 

Gill's  Gas  and  Fuel  Analysis  for  Engineers i2mo,     i   25 

Grotenfelt's  Principles  of  Modern  Dairy  Practice.     (Woll.) i2mo,    200 

Hammarsten's  Text-book  of  Physiological  Chemistry.     (MandeL) 8vo,    4  oo 

Helm's  Principles  of  Mathematical  Chemistry.     (Morgan.) i2mo,     i  50 

Bering's  Ready  Reference  lables  (Conversion  Factors) i6rco  morocco,    2  50 

Hind's  Inorganic  Chemistry 8vo,    3  oo 

*  Laboratory  Manual  for  Students i2mo,     i  oo 

Holleman's  Text-book  of  inorganic  Chemistry.     (Cooper.) 8vo,    2  50 

Text-book  of  Organic  Chemistry.     (Walker  and  Mott.) 8vo,    2  50 

*  Laboratory  Manual  of  Organic  Chemistry.     (Walker.) i2mo,     i  oo 

Hopkins' s  Oil-chemists'  Handbook. .  ; 8vo,    3  oo 

Jackson's  Directions  for  Laboratory  Work  in  Physiological  Chemistry.  .8vo,    i  25 

Keep's  Cast  Iron 8vo,    2  50 

Ladd's  Manual  of  Quantitative  Chemical  Analysis 12 mo,     i  oo 

Landauer's  Spectrum  Analysis.     (Tingle.) 8vo,    3  oo 

*  Langworthy  and   Austen.        The   Occurrence  of  Aluminium  in  Vege  able 

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Lassar-Cohn's  Practical  Urinary  Analysis.  (Lorenz.) i2mo,  i  oo 

Application  of  Some  General  Reactions  to  Investigations  in  Organic 

Chemistry.  (Tingle.) i2mo,  i  oo 

Leach's  The  Inspection  and  Analysis  of  Food  with  Special  Reference  to  State 

Control.  . 8vo,  7  50 

Lob's  Electrolysis  and  Electrosynthesis  of  Organic  Compounds.  (Lorenz. ).i2mo,  i  oo 
Lodge's  Notes  on  Assaying  and  Metallurgical  Laboratory  Experiments. ..  .8vo,  3  oo 

Lunge's  Techno-chemical  Analysis.  (Cohn.) i2mo,  i  oo 

Mandel's  Handbook  for  Bio-chemical  Laboratory i2mo,  i  50 

*  Martin's  Laboratory  Guide  to  Qualitative  Analysis  with  the  Blowpipe .  .  i2mo,        60 
Mason's  Water-supply.     (Considered  Principally  from  a  Sanitary  Standpoint.) 

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Matthew's  The  Textile  Fibres 8vo,    3  50 

Meyer's  Determination  of  Radicles  in  Carbon  Compounds.     (Tingle.).  .  i2mo,     i  oo 

Miller's  Manual  of  Assaying i2mo,     i  oo 

Mixter's  Elementary  Text-book  of  Chemistry i2mo,    i  50 

Morgan's  Outline  of  Theory  of  Solution  and  its  Results i2mo,    i  oo 

Elements  of  Physical  Chemistry i2mo,    2  oo 

Morse's  Calculations  used  in  Cane-sugar  Factories i6mo,  morocco,     i  50 

Mulliken's  General  Method  for  the  Identification  of  Pure  Organic  Compounds. 

Vol.  I Large  8vo,    5  oo 

O'Brine's  Laboratory  Guide  in  Chemical  Analysis 8vo,    2  oo 

O'Driscoll's  Notes  on  the  Treatment  of  Gold  Ores 8vo,    2  oo 

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*  Penfield's  Notes  on  Determinative  Mineralogy  and  Record  of  Mineral  Tests. 

8vo,  paper,         50 

Pictet's  The  Alkaloids  and  their  Chemical  Constitution.     (Biddle.) 8vo,    5  oo 

Pinner's  Introduction  to  Organic  Chemistry.     (Austen.) i2mo,    i  50 

Poole's  Calorific  Power  of  Fuels 8vo,    3  oo 

Prescott  and  Winslow's  Elements  of  Water  Bacteriology,  with  Special  Refer- 
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Richards  and  Woodman's  Air,  Water,  and  Food  from  a  Sanitary  Standpoint  8vo,  2  oo 

Richards's  Cost  of  Living  as  Modified  by  Sanitary  Science i2mo,  i  oo 

Cost  of  Food,  a  Study  in  Dietaries i2mo,  i  oo 

*  Richards  and  Williams's  The  Dietary  Computer 8vo,  i  50 

Ricketts  and  Russell's  Skeleton  Notes  upon  Inorganic  Chemistry.     (Part  I. 

Non-metallic  Elements.) 8vo,  morocco,  75 

Ricketts  and  Miller's  Notes  on  Assaying 8vo,  3  oo 

Rideal's  Sewage  and  the  Bacterial  Purification  of  Sewage 8vo,  3  50 

Disinfection  and  the  Preservation  of  Food 8vo,  4  oo 

Rigg's  Elementary  Manual  for  the  Chemical  Laboratory 8vo,  i  25 

Rostoski's  Serum  Diagnosis.     (Bolduan.) i2mo,  i  oo 

Ruddiman's  Incompatibilities  in  Prescriptions 8vo,  2  oo 

Sabin's  Industrial  and  Artistic  Technology  of  Paints  and  Varnish 8vo,  3  oo 

Salkowski's  Physiological  and  Pathological  Chemistry.     (Orndorff.) 8vo,  2  50 

Schimpf's  Text-book  of  Volumetric  Analysis i2mo, 

Essentials  of  Volumetric  Analysis I2mo, 

Spencer's  Handbook  for  Chemists  of  Beet-sugar  Houses i6mo,  morocco, 

Handbook  for  Sugar  Manufacturers  and  their  Chemists.  .  i6mo,  morocco, 

Stockbridge's  Rocks  and  Soils 8vo,  50 

*  Tillman's  Elementary  Lessons  in  Heat 8vo,  50 

*  Descriptive  General  Chemistry 8vo,  3  oo 

Treadwell's  Qualitative  Analysis.     (Hall.) 8vo,  3  oo 

Quantitative  Analysis.     (Hall.) 8vo,  4  oo 

Turneaure  and  Russell's  Public  Water-supplies 8vo,  5  oo 

Van  Deventer's  Physical  Chemistry  for  Beginners.     (Boltwood.) I2mo,  i  50 

*  Walke's  Lectures  on  Explosives 8"o,  4  oo 

Washington's  Manual  of  the  Chemical  Analysis  of  Rocks 8~o,  2  oo 

Wassermann's  Immune  Sera:  Haemolysins,  Cytotoxins,  and  Precipitins.    (Bol- 
duan.)   i2mo,  i  oo 

Well's  Laboratory  Guide  in  Qualitative  Chemical  Analysis 8vo,  i  50 

Short  Course  in  Inorganic  Qualitative  Chemical  Analysis  for  Engineering 

Students i2mo,  i  50 

Text-book  of  Chemical  Arithmetic I2mo,  i  25 

Whipple's  Microscopy  of  Drinking-water 8vo,  3  50 

Wilson's  Cyanide  Processes I2mo,  i  50 

Chlorination  Process I2mo,  i  50 

Wulling's    Elementary    Course    in  Inorganic,  Pharmaceutical,  and  Medical 

Chemistry I2mo,  2  oo 

CIVIL  ENGINEERING. 

BRIDGES    AND    ROOFS.       HYDRAULICS.       MATERIALS    OF    ENGINEERING. 
RAILWAY  ENGINEERING. 

Baker's  Engineers'  Surveying  Instruments I2mo,  3  oo 

Bixby's  Graphical  Computing  Table Paper  19^X24!  inches.  25 

**  Burr's  Ancient  and  Modern  Engineering  and  the  Isthmian  Canal.     (Postage, 

27  cents  additional.) 8vo,  3  50 

Comstock's  Field  Astronomy  for  Engineers 8vo,  2  50 

Davis's  Elevation  and  Stadia  Tables 8vo,  i  oo 

Elliott's  Engineering  for  Land  Drainage i2mo,  i  50 

Practical  Farm  Drainage I2mo,  i  oo 

*Fiebeger's  Treatise  on  Civil  Engineering 8vo,  5  oo 

Folwell's  Sewerage.     (Designing  and  Maintenance.) 8vo,  3  oo 

Freitag's  Architectural  Engineering.     2d  Edition,  Rewritten 8vo,  3  50 

French  and  Ives's  Stereotomy 8vo,  2  50 

Goodhue's  Municipal  Improvements I2mo,  i  75 

Goodrich's  Economic  Disposal  of  Towns'  Refuse 8vo,  3  50 

Gore's  Elements  of  Geodesy 8vo,  2  50 

Hayford's  Text-book  of  Geodetic  Astronomy 8vo,  3  oo 

Bering's  Ready  Reference  Tables  (Conversion  Factors) i6mo,  morocco,  2  50 

5 


Howe's  Retaining  Walls  for  Earth lamo,  i  25 

Johnson's  (J.  B.)  Theory  and  Practice  of  Surveying Small  8vo,  4  oo 

Johnson's  (L.  J.)  Statics  by  Algebraic  and  Graphic  Methods 8vo,  2  oo 

Laplace's  Philosophical  Essay  on  Probabilities.     (Truscott  and  Emory.) .  i2mo,  2  oo 

Mahan's  Treatise  on  Civil  Engineering.     (1873.)     (Wood.) 8vo,  5  oo 

*  Descriptive  Geometry 8vo,  i  50 

Merriman's  Elements  of  Precise  Surveying  and  Geodesy 8vo,  2  50 

Elements  of  Sanitary  Engineering 8vo,  2  oo 

Merriman  and  Brooks's  Handbook  for  Surveyors i6mo,  morocco,  2  oo 

Nugent's  Plane  Surveying 8vo,  3  50 

Ogden's  Sewer  Design i2mo,  2  oo 

Patton's  Treatise  on  Civil  Engineering 8vo  half  leather,  7  50 

Reed's  Topographical  Drawing  and  Sketching 4to,  5  oo 

Rideal's  Sewage  and  the  Bacterial  Purification  of  Sewaj_<j 8vo,  3  50 

Siebert  and  Biggin's  Modern  Stone-cutting  and  Masonry 8vo,  i  50 

Smith's  Manual  of  Topographical  Drawing.     (McMillan.) 8vo,  2  50 

Sondericker's  Graphic  Statics,  with  Applications  to  Trusses,  Beams,  and  Arches. 

8vo,  2  oo 

Taylor  and  Thompson's  Treatise  on  Concrete,  Plain  and  Reinforced 8vo,  5  oo 

*  Trautwine's  Civil  Engineer's  Pocket-book z6mo,  morocco,  5  oo 

Wait's  Engineering  and  Archi'.ectural  Jurisprudence 8vo,  6  oo 

Sheep,  6  50 

Law  of  Operations  Preliminary  to  Construction  in  Engineering  and  Archi- 
tecture  8vo,  5  oo 

Sheep,  5  5O 

Law  of  Contracts 8vo,  3  oo 

Warren's  Stereotomy — Problems  in  Stone-cutting 8v.o,  2  50 

Webb's  Problems  in  the  Use  and  Adjustment  of  Engineering  Instruments. 

i6mo,  morocco,  i  25 

*  Wheeler  s  Elementary  Course  of  Civil  Engineering 8vo,  4  oo 

Wilson's  Topographic  Surveying 8vo,  3  50 

BRIDGES  AND  ROOFS. 

Boiler's  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Construction  of  Iron  Highway  Bridges.  .8ro,  2  oo 

*  Thames  River  Bridge 4to,  paper,  5  oo 

Burr's  Course  on  the  Stresses  in  Bridges  and  Roof  Trusses,  Arched  Ribs,  and 

Suspension  Bridges 8vo,  3  50. 

Burr  and  Falk's  Influence  Lines  for  Bridge  and  Roof  Computations.  .  .  .8vo,  3  oo 

Du  Bois's  Mechanics  of  Engineering.     Vol.  II Small  4to,  10  oo 

Foster's  Treatise  on  Wooden  Trestle  Bridges 4to,  5  oo 

Fowler's  Ordinary  Foundations 8vo,  3  50 

Greene's  Roof  Trusses 8vo,  i  25 

Bridge  Trusses 8vo,  2  50 

Arches  in  Wood,  Iron,  and  Stone 8vo,  2  50 

Howe's  Treatise  on  Arches 8vo,  4  oo 

Design  of  Simple  Roof-trusses  in  Wood  and  Steel 8vo,  2  oo 

Johnson,  Bryan,  and  Turneaure's  Theory  and  Practice  in  the  Designing  of 

Modern  Framed  Structures Small  4to,  10  oo 

Merriman  and  Jacoby's  Text-book  on  Roofs  and  Bridges : 

Part  I.     Stresses  in  Simple  Trusses , 8vo,  2  50 

Part  II.     Graphic  Statics 8vo,  2  50 

Part  IH.     Bridge  Design 8vo,  2  50 

Part  IV.     Higher  Structures 8vo,  2  50 

Morison's  Memphis  Bridge .^ 4to,  10  oo 

Waddell's  De  Pontibus,  a  Pocket-book  for  Bridge  Engineers.  .  i6mo,  morocco,  3  oo 

Specifications  for  Steel  Bridges i2mo.  i  25 

Wood's  Treatise  on  the  Theory  of  the  Construction  of  Bridges  and  Roofs.  .8vo,  2  CO 
Wright's  Designing  of  Draw-spans: 

Part  I.     Plate-girder  Draws 8vo,  2  50 

Part  II.     Riveted-truss  and  Pin-connected  Long-span  Draws 8vo,  2  50 

Two  parts  in  one  volume 8vo,  3  50 

a 


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Bazin's  Experiments  upon  the  Contraction  of  the  Liquid  Vein  Issuing  from 

an  Orifice.     (Trautwine.) 8vo,  2  oo 

Bovey's  Treatise  on  Hydraulics 8vo,  5  oo 

Church's  Mechanics  of  Engineering 8vo,  6  oo 

Diagrams  of  Mean  Velocity  of  Water  in  Open  Channels paper,  i  50 

Coffin's  Graphical  Solution  of  Hydraulic  Problems i6mo,  morocco,  2  50 

Flather's  Dynamometers,  and  the  Measurement  of  Power i2mo,  3  oo 

Folwell's  Water-supply  Engineering 8vo,  4  oo 

Frizell's  Water-power 8vo,  5  oo 

Fuertes's  Water  and  Public  Health. 12010,  i  50 

Water-filtration  Works 12010,  2  50 

Ganguillet  and  Kutter's  General  Formula  for  the  Uniform  Flow  of  Water  in 

Rivers  and  Other  Channels.     (Hering  and  Trautwine.) 8vo,  4  oo 

Hazen's  Filtration  of  Public  Water-supply 8vo,  3  oo 

Hazlehurst's  Towers  and  Tanks  for  Water-works 8vo,  2  50 

Herschel's  115  Experiments  on  the  Carrying  Capacity  of  Large,  Riveted,  Metal 

Conduits 8vo,  2  oo 

Mason's  Water-supply.     (Considered  Principally  from  a  Sanitary  Standpoint.) 

8vo,  4  oo 

Merriman's  Treatise  on  Hydraulics 8vo,  5  oo 

*  Michie's  Elements  of  Analytical  Mechanics 8vo,  4  oo 

Schuyler's   Reservoirs   for   Irrigation,   Water-power,   and   Domestic   Water- 
supply Large  8vo,  5  oo 

**  Thomas  and  Watt's  Improvement  of  Rivers.     (Post.,  44C.  additional. ).4to,  6  oo 

Turneaure  and  Russell's  Public  Water-supplies 8vo,  5  oo 

Wegmann's  Design  and  Construction  of  Dams 4to,  5  oo 

Water-supply  of  the  City  of  New  York  from  1658  to  1895 4to,  10  oo 

Williams  and  Hazen's  Hydraulic  Tables 8vo,  i   50 

Wilson's  Irrigation  Engineering Small  8vo,  4  oo 

Wolff's  Windmill  as  a  Prime  Mover 8vo,  3  oo 

Wood's  Turbines 8vo,  2  50 

Elements  of  Analytical  Mechanics 8vo,  3  oo 

MATERIALS  OF  ENGINEERING. 

Baker's  Treatise  on  Masonry  Construction 8vo,  5  oo 

Roads  and  Pavements 8vo,  5  oo 

Black's  United  States  Public  Works Oblong  410,  5  oo 

Bovey's  Strength  of  Materials  and  Theory  of  Structures 8vo,  7  50 

Burr's  Elasticity  and  Resistance  of  the  Materials  of  Engineering 8vo,  7  50 

Byrne's  Highway  Construction 8vo,  5  oo 

Inspection  of  the  Materials  and  Workmanship  Employed  in  Construction. 

i6mo,  3  oo 

Church's  Mechanics  of  Engineering 8vo,  6  oo 

Du  Bois's  Mechanics  of  Engineering.     Vol.  I Sma.ll  4to,  7  50 

^Eckel's  Cements,  Limes,  and  Plasters 8vo,  6  oo 

Johnson's  Materials  of  Construction Large  8vo,  6  oo 

Fowler's  Ordinary  Foundations 8vo,  3  50 

Keep's  Cast  Iron 8vo,  2  50 

Lanza's  Applied  Mechanics 8vo,  7  50 

Marten's  Handbook  on  Testing  Materials.     (Henning.)     2  vols 8vo,  7  50 

Merrill's  Stones  for  Building  and  Decoration 8vo,  5  oo 

Merriman's  Mechanics  of  Materials.                                  8vo,  5  oo 

Strength  of  Materials I2mo,  i  oo 

Metcalf's  Steel.     A  Manual  for  Steel-users i2mo,  2  oo 

Patton's  Practical  Treatise  on  Foundations 8vo,  5  oo 

Richardson's  Modern  Asphalt  Pavements 8vo,  3  oo 

Richey's  Handbook  for  Superintendents  of  Construction i6mo,  mor.,  4  oo 

Rockwell's  Roads  and  Pavements  in  France i2mo,  i  23 

7 


Sabin's  Industrial  and  Artistic  Technology  of  Paints  and  Varnish 8vo,  3  oo 

Smith's  Materials  of  Machines i2mo,  i  oo 

Snow's  Principal  Species  of  Wood 8vo,  3  50 

Spalding's  Hydraulic  Cement 12:010,  2  oo 

Text-book  on  Roads  and  Pavements I2mo,  2  oo 

Taylor  and  Thompson's  Treatise  on  Concrete,  Plain  and  Reinforced 8vo,  5  oo 

Thurston's  Materials  of  Engineering.     3  Parts 8vo,  8  oo 

Part  I.     Non-metallic  Materials  of  Engineering  and  Metallurgy 8vo,  2  oo 

Part  II.    Iron  and  Steel 8vo,  3  50 

Part  III.     A  Treatise  on  Brasses,  Bronzes,  and  Other  Alloys  and  their 

Constituents 8vo,  2  50 

Thurston's  Text-book  of  the  Materials  of  Construction 8vo,  5  oo 

Tillson's  Street  Pavements  and  Paving  Materials 8vo,  4  oo 

Waddell's  De  Pontibus.    (&  Pocket-book  for  Bridge  Engineers.).  .  i6mo,  mor.,  3  oo 

Specifications  for  Stc.  i  Bridges i2mo,  i  25 

Wood's  (De  V.)  Treatise  on  the  Resistance  of  Materials,  and  an  Appendix  on 

the  Preservation  of  Timber 8vo,  2  oo 

Wood's  (De  V.)  Elements  of  Analytical  Mechanics 8vo,  3  oo 

Wood',;  (M.  P.)  Rustless  Coatings:    Corrosion  and  Electrolysis  of  Iron  and 

Steel. 8vo,  4  oo 

RAILWAY  ENGINEERING. 

Andrew's  Handbook  for  Street  Railway  Engineers 3x5  inches,  morocco,  i  25 

Berg's  Buildings  and  Structures  of  American  Railroads 4to,  5  oo 

Brook's  Handbook  of  Street  Railroad  Location i6mo,  morocco,  i  50 

Butt's  Civil  Engineer's  Field-book i6mo,  morocco,  2  50 

Crandall's  Transition  Curve i6mo,  morocco,  i  50 

Railway  and  Other  Earthwork  Tables 8vo,  i  50 

Dawson's  "Engineering"  and  Electric  Traction  Pocket-book.  .  i6mo,  morocco,  5  oo 

Dredge's  History  of  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad:   (1879) Paper,  5  oo 

*  Drinker's  Tunnelling,  Explosive  Compounds,  and  Rock  Drills. 4to,  half  mor.,  25  oo 

Fisher's  Table  of  Cubic  Yards Cardboard,  25 

Godwin's  Railroad  Engineers'  Field-book  and  Explorers'  Guide.  .  .  i6mo,  mor.,  2  50 

Howard's  Transition  Curve  Field-book i6mo,  morocco,  i  50 

Hudson's  Tables  for  Calculating  the  Cubic  Contents  of  Excavations  and  Em- 
bankments  8vo,  i  oo 

Mo  lit  or  and  Beard's  Manual  for  Resident  Engineers i6mo,  i  oo 

Kagle's  Field  Manual  for  Railroad  Engineers i6mo,  morocco,  3  oo 

Philbrick's  Field  Manual  for  Engineers i6mo,  morocco,  3  oo 

Searles's  Field  Engineering i6mo,  morocco,  3  oo 

Railroad  Spiral i6mo,  morocco,  i  50 

Taylor's  Prismoidal  Formulae  and  Earthwork 8vo,  i  50 

*  Trautwine's  Method  of  Calculating  the  Cube  Contents  of  Excavations  and 

Embankments  by  the  Aid  of  Diagrams 8vo,  2  oo 

The  Field  Practice  of  Laying  Out  Circular  Curves  for  Railroads. 

>        i2mo,  morocco,  2  50 

Cross-section  Sheet Paper,  25 

Webb's  Railroad  Construction i6mo,  morocco,  5  oo 

Wellington's  Economic  Theory  of  the  Location  of  Railways Small  8 vo,  5  oo 

DRAWING. 

Barr's  Kinematics  of  Machinery 8vo,  2  50 

*  Bartlett's  Mechanical  Drawing 8vo,  3  oo 

*  "                    "                   "        Abridged  Ed '. 8vo,  i  50 

Coolidge's  Manual  of  Drawing 8vo,  paper  i  oo 

Coolidge  and  Freeman's  Elements  of  General  Drafting  for  Mechanical  Engi- 
neers  Oblong  4to,  2  50 

Durley's  Kinematics  of  Machines 8vo,  4  oo 

Emch's  Introduction  to  Projective  Geometry  and  its  Applications 8vo.  2  50 

8 


Hill's  Text-book  on  Shades  and  Shadows,  and  Perspective 8vo,  2  oo 

Jamison's  Elements  of  Mechanical  Drawing 8vo,  2  50 

Advanced  Mechanical  Drawing .8vo,  2  oo 

Jones's  Machine  Design: 

Part  I.     Kinematics  of  Machinery 8vo,  i  50 

Part  n.     Form,  Strength,  and  Proportions  of  Parts 8vo,  3  oo 

MacCord's  Elements  of  Descriptive  Geometry 8vo,  3  oo 

Kinematics;  or,  Practical  Mechanism 8vo,  5  oo 

Mechanical  Drawing 4to,  4  oo 

Velocity  Diagrams 8vo,  i  50 

*  Mahan's  Descriptive  Geometry  and  Stone-cutting 8vo,  i  50 

Industrial  Drawing.     (Thompson.) 8vo,  3  50 

Meyer's  Descriptive  Geometry 8vo,  2  oo 

Reed's  Topographical  Drawing  and  Sketching 4to,  5  oo 

Reid's  Course  in  Mechanical  Drawing 8vo,  2  oo 

Text-book  of  Mechanical  Drawing  and  Elementary  Machine  Design. 8vo,  3  oo 

Robinson's  Principles  of  Mechanism 8vo,  3  oo 

Schwamb  and  Merrill's  Elements  of  Mechanism 8vo,  3  oo 

Smith's  Manual  of  Topographical  Drawing.'     (McMillan.) 8vo,  2  50 

Warren's  Elements  of  Plane  and  Solid  Free-hand  Geometrical  Drawing.  i2mo, 


Drafting  Instruments  and  Operations i2mo.. 

Manual  of  Elementary  Projection  Drawing 12010, 

Manual  of  Elementary  Problems  in  the  Linear  Perspective  of  Form  and 


Shadow i2mo,  oo 

Plane  Problems  in  Elementary  Geometry 12010,  25 

Primary  Geometry i2mo,  75 

Elements  of  Descriptive  Geometry,  Shadows,  and  Perspective 8vo,  3  50 

General  Problems  of  Shades  and  Shadows 8vo,  3  oo 

Elements  of  Machine  Construction  and  Drawing 8vo,  7  50 

Problems,  Theorems,  and  Examples  in  Descriptive  Geometry 8vo,  2  50 

Weisbach's  Kinematics  and  Power  of  Transmission.    (Hermann  and  Klein)8vo,  5  oo 

Whelpley's  Practical  Instruction  in  the  Art  of  Letter  Engraving 12 mo,  2  oo 

Wilson's  (H.  M.)  Topographic  Surveying 8vo,  3  50 

Wilson's  (V.  T.)  Free-hand  Perspective 8vo,  2  50 

Wilson's  (V.  T.)  Free-hand  Lettering 8vo,  i  oo 

Woolf's  Elementary  Course  in  Descriptive  Geometry Large  8vo,  3  oo 


ELECTRICITY  AND  PHYSICS. 

Anthony  and  Brackett's  Text-book  of  Physics.     (Magie.) Small  8vo,  3  oo 

Anthony's  Lecture-notes  on  the  Theory  of  Electrical  Measurements.  .  .  .I2mo,  i  oo 

Benjamin's  History  of  Electricity, 8vo,  3  oo 

Voltaic  Cell 8vo,  3  oo 

Classen's  Quantitative  Chemical  Analysis  by  Electrolysis.     (Boltwood.).8vo,  3  oo 

Crehore  and  Squier's  Polarizing  Photo-chronograph 8vo,  3  oo 

Dawson's  "Engineering"  and  Electric  Traction  Pocket-book.  i6mo,  morocco,  5  oo 
Dolezalek's   Theory   of   the    Lead   Accumulator    (Storage    Battery).      (Von 

Ende.) I2mo,  2  50 

Duhem's  Thermodynamics  and  Chemistry.     (Burgess.) 8vo,  4  oo 

Flather's  Dynamometers,  and  the  Measurement  of  Power 12010,  3  oo 

Gilbert's  De  Magnete.     (Mottelay.) 8vo,  2  50 

Hanchett's  Alternating  Currents  Explained 12010,  I  oo 

Bering's  Ready  Reference  Tables  (Conversion  Factors) i6mo,  morocco,  2  50 

Holman's  Precision  of  Measurements 8vo,  2  oo 

Telescopic   Mirror-scale  Method,  Adjustments,  and   Tests.  .  .  .Large  8vo,  75 

Kinzbrunner's  Testing  of  Continuous-Current  Machines 8vo,  2  oo 

Landauer's  Spectrum  Analysis.     (Tingle.) 8vo,  3  oo 

Le  Chatelien's  High-temperature  Measurements.  (Boudouard — Burgess.)  12010.  3  oo 

Lob's  Electrolysis  and  Electrosynthesis  of  Organic  Compounds.  (Lorenz.)  12010,  i  oo 

n 


*  Lyons's  Treatise  on  Electromagnetic  Phenomena.  Vols.  I.  and  II.  8vo,  each,  6  oo 

*  Michie's  Elements  of  Wave  Motion  Relating  to  Sound  and  Light 8vo,  4  oo 

Niaudet's  Elementary  Treatise  on  Electric  Batteries.     (Fishback.) i2mo,  2  50 

*  Rosenberg's  Electrical  Engineering.     (Haldane  Gee — Kinzbrunner.).  .  .8vo,  i  50 

Ryan,  Norris,  and  Hoxie's  Electrical  Machinery.     Vol.  1 8vo,  2  50 

Thurston's  Stationary  Steam-engines 8vo,  2  50 

*  Tillman's  Elementary  Lessons  in  Heat 8vo,  i  50 

Tory  and  Pitcher's  Manual  of  Laboratory  Physics Small  8vo,  2  oo 

Ulke's  Modern  Electrolytic  Copper  Refining 8vo,  3  oo 

LAW. 

*  Davis's  Elements  of  Law 8vo,  2  50 

*  Treatise  on  the  Military  Law  of  United  States 8vo,  7  oo 

*  Sheep,  7  50 

Manual  for  Courts-martial i6mo,  morocco,  i  50 

Wait's  Engineering  and  Architectural  Jurisprudence 8vo,  6  oo 

Sheep,  6  50 

Law  of  Operations  Preliminary  to  Construction  in  Engineering  and  Archi- 
tecture  8vo,  5  oo 

Sheep,  5  50 

Law  of  Contracts 8vo',  3  oo 

Winthrop's  Abridgment  of  Military  Law I2mo,  2  50 

MANUFACTURES. 

Bernadou's  Smokeless  Powder — Nitro-cellulose  and  Theory  of  the  Cellulose 

Molecule ; I2mo,  2  50 

Bolland's  Iron  Founder I2mo,  2  50 

"  The  Iron  Founder,"  Supplement i2mo,  2  50 

Encyclopedia  of  Founding  and  Dictionary  of  Foundry  Terms  Used  in  the 

Practice  of  Moulding i2mo,  3  oo 

Eissler's  Modern  High  Explosives 8vo,  4  oo 

Effront's  Enzymes  and  their  Applications.     (Prescott.).  . 8vo,  3  oo 

Fitzgerald's  Boston  Machinist i2mo,  i  oo 

Ford's  Boiler  Making  for  Boiler  Makers i8mo,  i  oo 

Hopkin's  Oil-chemists'  Handbook 8vo,  3  oo 

Keep's  Cast  Iron 8vo,  2  50 

Leach's  The  Inspection  and  Analysis  of  Feod  with  Special  Reference  to  State 

Control. Large  8vo,  7  50 

Matthews's  The  Textile  Fibres 8vo,  3  50 

Metcalf's  Steel.     A  Manual  for  Steel-users i2mo,  2  oo 

Metcalfe's  Cost  of  Manufactures — And  the  Administration  of  Workshops  8vo,  5  oo 

Meyer's  Modern  Locomotive  Construction 4to,  10  oo 

Morse's  Calculations  used  in  Cane-sugar  Factories i6mo,  morocco,  i  50 

*  Reisig's  Guide  to  Piece-dyeing 8vo,  25  oo 

Sabin's  Industrial  and  Artistic  Technology  of  Paints  and  Varnish 8vo,  3  oo 

Smith's  Press-working  of  Metals 8vo,  3  oo 

Spalding's  Hydraulic  Cement i2tno,  2  oo 

Spencer's  Handbook  for  Chemists  of  Beet-sugar  Houses.    ...  i6mo,  morocco,  3  oo 

Handbook  for  Sugar  Manufacturers  and  their  Chemists.  .  i6mo,  morocco,  2  oo 

Taylor  and  Thompson's  Treatise  on  Concrete,  Plain  and  Reinforced 8vo,  5  oo 

Thurston's  Manual  of  Steam-boilers,  their  Designs,  Construction  and  Opera- 
tion  8vo,  5  oo 

*  Walke's  Lectures  on  Explosives 8vo,  4  oo 

Ware's  Manufacture  of  Sugar.     (In  press.) 

West's  American  Foundry  Practice i2mo,  2  50 

Moulder's  Text-book i2mo,  2  50 

10 


Wolff's  Windmill  as  a  Prime  Mover 8vo,    3  o« 

Wood's  Rustless  Coatings:   Corrosion  and  Electrolysis  of  Iron  and  Steel.  .8vo,    4  o» 


MATHEMATICS. 

Baker's  Elliptic  Functions 8vo,  I  50 

*  Bass's  Elements  of  Differential  Calculus I2mo,  4  oo 

Briggs's  Elements  of  Plane  Analytic  Geometry i2mo,  oo 

Compton's  Manual  of  Logarithmic  Computations I2mo,  50 

Davis's  Introduction  to  the  Logic  of  Algebra 8vo,  50 

*  Dickson's  College  Algebra Large  i2mo,  50 

*  Introduction  to  the  Theory  of  Algebraic  Equations Large  i2mo,  25 

Emch's  Introduction  to  Projective  Geometry  and  its  Applications 8vo,  50 

Halsted's  Elements  of  Geometry ." 8vo,  75 

Elementary  Synthetic  Geometry ; 8vo,  50 

Rational  Geometry i2mo,  75 

*  Johnson's  (J.  B.)  Three-place  Logarithmic  Tables:   Vest-pocket  size. paper,  15 

100  copies  for  5  oo 

Mounted  on  heavy  cardboard,  8X10  inches,  25 

10  copies  for  2  oo 

Johnson's  (W.  W.)  Elementary  Treatise  on  Differential  Calculus .  . Smah  8vo,  3  oo 

Johnson's  (W.  W.)  Elementary  Treatise  on  the  Integral  Calculus. Small  8vo,  i  50 

Johnson's  (W.  W.)  Curve  Tracing  in  Cartesian  Co-ordinates i2mo,  i  oo 

Johnson's  (W.  W.)  Treatise  on  Ordinary  and  Partial  Differential  Equations. 

Small  8vo,  3  50 

Johnson's  (W.  W.)  Theory  of  Errors  and  the  Method  of  Least  Squares.  i2mo,  i  50 

*  Johnson's  (W.  W.)  Theoretical  Mechanics i2ino,  3  oo 

Laplace's  Philosophical  Essay  on  Probabilities.     (Truscott  and  Emory.) .  i2mo,  2  oo 

*  Ludlow  and  Bass.     Elements  of  Trigonometry  and  Logarithmic  and  Other 

Tables 8vo,  3  oo 

Trigonometry  and  Tables  published  separately Each,  2  oo 

*  Ludlow's  Logarithmic  and  Trigonometric  Tables 8vo,  i  oo 

Maurer's  Technical  Mechanics 8vo,  4  oo 

Merriman  and  Woodward's  Higher  Mathematics.. 8vo,  5  oo 

Merriman's  Method  of  Least  Squares 8vo,  2  oo 

Rice  and  Johnson's  Elementary  Treatise  on  the  Differential  Calculus. .  Sm.  8vo,  3  oo 

Differential  and  Integral  Calculus.     2  vols.  in  one Small  8vo,  2  50 

Wood's  Elements  of  Co-ordinate  Geometry 8vo,  2  oo 

Trigonometry:  Analytical,  Plane,  and  Spherical 12010,  i  oo 


MECHANICAL  ENGINEERING. 

MATERIALS  OF  ENGINEERING,  STEAM-ENGINES  AND  BOILERS. 

Bacon's  Forge  Practice i2mo,  i  50 

Baldwin's  Steam  Heating  for  Buildings i2rao,  2  50 

Barr's  Kinematics  of  Machinery 8vo,  2  50 

*  Bartlett's  Mechanical  Drawing 8vo,  3  oo 

Abridged  Ed 8vo,  i  50 

Benjamin's  Wrinkles  and  Recipes i2mo,  2  oo 

Carpenter's  Experimental  Engineering 8vo,  6  oo 

Heating  and  Ventilating  Buildings 8vo,  4  oo 

Cary's  Smoke  Suppression  in  Plants  using  Bituminous  Coal.     (In  Prepara- 
tion.) 

Clerk's  Gas  and  Oil  Engine •. Small  8vo,  4  oo 

Coolidge's  Manual  of  Drawing 8vo,  paper,  i  oo 

Coolidge  and  Freeman's  Elements  of  General  Drafting  for  Mechanical  En- 
gineers  Oblong  4to,  2  50 

11 


Cromwell's  Treatise  on  Toothed  Gearing i2mo,  i  50 

Treatise  on  Belts  and  Pulleys i2mo,  i  50 

Durley's  Kinematics  of  Machines 8vo,  4  oo 

Flather's  Dynamometers  and  the  Measurement  of  Power. I2mo,  3  oo 

Rope  Driving i2mo,  2  oo 

Gill's  Gas  and  Fuel  Analysis  for  Engineers i2mo,  i  25 

Hall's  Car  Lubrication i2mo,  i  oo 

Bering's  Ready  Reference  Tables  (Conversion  Factors) i6mo,  morocco,  2  50 

Button's  The  Gas  Engine 8vo,  5  oo 

Jamison's  Mechanical  Drawing 8vo,  2  50 

Jones's  Machine  Design: 

Part  I.     Kinematics  of  Machinery 8vo,  i  50 

Part  II.     Form,  Strength,  and  Proportions  of  Parts 8vo,  3  oo 

Kent's  Mechanical  Engineers'  Pocket-book i6mo,  morocco,  5  oo 

Kerr's  Power  and  Power  Transmission 8vo,  2  oo 

Leonard's  Machine  Shop,  Tools,  and  Methods 8vo,  4  oo 

*Lorenz's  Modern  Refrigerating  Machinery.     (Pope,  Haven,  and  Dean.)  .  .8vo,  4  oo 

MacCord's  Kinematics;   or,  Practical  Mechanism 8vo,  5  oo 

Mechanical  Drawing 4to,  4  oo 

Velocity  Diagrams • 8vo,  i  50 

Mahan's  Industrial  Drawing.     (Thompson.) 8vo,  3  50 

Poole  s  Calorific  Power  of  Fuels 8vo,  3  oo 

Reid's  Course  in  Mechanical  Drawing 8vo,  2  oo 

Text-book  of  Mechanical  Drawing  and  Elementary  Machine  Design. 8vo,  3  oo 

Richard's  Compressed  Air I2mo,  i  50 

Robinson's  Principles  of  Mechanism 8vo,  3  oo 

Schwamb  and  Merrill's  Elements  of  Mechanism 8vo,  3  oo 

Smith's  Press-working  of  Metals 8vo,  3  oo 

Thurston's   Treatise   on   Friction  and   Lost   Work   in   Machinery  and   Mill 

Work 8vo,  3  oo 

Animal  as  a  Machine  and  Prime  Motor,  and  the  Laws  of  Energetics .  1 2 mo,  i  oo 

Warren's  Elements  of  Machine  Construction  and  Drawing ,  .  .  .  8vo,  7  50 

Weisbach's    Kinematics    and    the    Power    of    Transmission.     (Herrmann — 

Klein.) 8vo,  5  oo 

Machinery  of  Transmission  and  Governors.     (Herrmann — Klein.).  .8vo,  5  oo 

Wolff 's  Windmill  as  a  Prime  Mover 8vo,  3  oo 

Wood's  Turbines 8vo,  2  50 


MATERIALS   OF   ENGINEERING. 

Bovey's  Strength  of  Materials  and  Theory  of  Structures 8vo,  7  50 

Burr's  Elasticity  and  Resistance  of  the  Materials  of  Engineering.    6th  Edition. 

Reset 8vo,  7  50 

Church's  Mechanics  of  Engineering 8vo,  6  oo 

Johnson's  Materials  of  Construction 8vo,  6  oo 

Keep's  Cast  Iron 8vo,  2  50 

Lanza's  Applied  Mechanics 8vo,  7  50 

Martens 's  Handbook  on  Testing  Materials.     (Henning.) 8vo,  7  50 

Merriman's  Mechanics  of  Materials.  8vo,  5  oo 

Strength  of  Materials I2mo,  i  oo 

Metcalf's  Steel.     A  manual  for  Steel-users I2mo,  2  eo 

Sabin's  Industrial  and  Artistic  Technology  of  Paints  and  Varnish 8vo,  3  oo 

Smith's  Materials  of  Machines I2mo,  i  oo 

Thurston's  Materials  of  Engineering 3  vols.,  8vo,  8  oo 

Part  H.     Iren  and  Steel 8vo,  3  So 

Part  HI.     A  Treatise  on  Brasses,  Bronzes,  and  Other  Alloys  and  their 

Constituents 8vo»  2  5<> 

Text-book  of  the  Materials  of  Construction 8vo,  5  oo 

12 


Wood's  (De  V.)  Treatise  on  the  Resistance  of  Materials  and  an  Appendix  on 

the  Preseivation  of  Timber 8vo,    2  oO 

Wood's  (De  V.)  Elements  of  Analytical  Mechanics 8vo,    3  oo 

Wood's  (M.  P.)  Rustless  Coatings:    Corrosion  and  Electrolysis  of  Iron  and 

Ste«l..  8vo,    400 


STEAM-ENGINES  AND  BOILERS. 


Berry's  Temperature-entropy  Diagram I2mo,  i  25 

Carnot's  Reflections  on  the  Motive  Power  of  Heat.     (Thurston.) i2mo,  150 

Dawson's  "Engineering"  and  Electric  Traction  Pocket-book.  .  .  .i6mo,  mor.,  5  oo 

Ford's  Boiler  Making  for  Boiler  Makers i8mo,  i  oo 

Goss's  Locomotive  Sparks 8vo,  2  oo 

Hemenway's  Indicator  Practice  and  Steam-engine  Economy i2mo,  2  oo 

Button's  Mechanical  Engineering  of  Power  Plants 8vo,  5  oo 

Heat  and  Heat-engines 8vo,  5  oo 

Kent's  Steam  boiler  Economy 8vo,  4  oo 

Kneass's  Practice  and  Theory  of  the  Injector 8vo,  i  50 

MacCord's  Slide-valves , 8vo,  2  oo 

Meyer's  Modern  Locomotive  Construction ." 4to,  10  oo 

Peabody's  Manual  of  the  Steam-engine  Indicator i2mo.  i  50 

Tables  of  the  Properties  of  Saturated  Steam  and  Other  Vapors 8vo,  i  oo 

Thermodynamics  of  the  Steam-engine  and  Other  Heat-engines 8vo,  5  oo 

Valve-gears  for  Steam-engines 8vo,  2  50 

Peabody  and  Miller's  Steam-boilers 8vo,  4  oo 

Pray's  Twenty  Years  with  the  Indicator Large  8vo,  2  50 

Pupin's  Thermodynamics  of  Reversible  Cycles  in  Gases  and  Saturated  Vapors. 

(Osterberg.) i2mo,  i  25 

Reagan's  Locomotives:  Simple   Compound,  and  Electric i2mo,  2  50 

Rontgen's  Principles  of  Thermodynamics.     (Du  Bois.) 8vo,  5  oo 

Sinclair's  Locomotive  Engine  Running  and  Management i2mo,  2  oo 

Smart's  Handbook  of  Engineering  Laboratory  Practice I2mo,  2  50 

Snow's  Steam-boiler  Practice 8vo,  3  oo 

Spangler's  Valve-gears 8vo,  2  50 

Notes  on  Thermodynamics i2mo,  i  oo 

Spangler,  Greene,  and  Marshall's  Elements  of  Steam-engineering 8vo,  3  oo 

Thurston's  Handy  Tables 8vo.  i  50 

Manual  of  the  Steam-engine 2  vols.,  8vo,  10  oo 

Part  I.     History,  Structure,  and  Theory 8vo,  6  oo 

Part  II.     Design,  Construction,  and  Operation 8vo,  6  oo 

Handbook  of  Engine  and  Boiler  Trials,  and  the  Use  of  the  Indicator  and 

the  Prony  Brake 8vo,  5  oo 

Stationary  Steam-engines 8vo,  2  50 

Steam-boiler  Explosions  in  Theory  and  in  Practice lamo,    i  50 

Manual  of  Steam-boilers,  their  Designs,  Construction,  and  Operation 8vo,  5  oo 

Weisbach's  Heat,  Steam,  and  Steam-engines.     (Du  Bois.) 8vo,  5  oo 

Whitham's  Steam-engine  Design 8vo,  5  oo 

Wilson's  Treatise  on  Steam-boilers.     (Flather.) i6mo,  2  50 

Wood's  Thermodynamics,  Heat  Motors,  and  Refrigerating  Machines.  .  .8vo,  4  oo 


MECHANICS  AND  MACHINERY. 

Barr's  Kinematics  of  Machinery 8vo,  2  50 

Bovey's  Strength  of  Materials  and  Theory  of  Structures 8vo,  7  50 

Chase's  The  Art  of  Pattern-making i2mo,  2  50 

Church's  Mechanics  of  Engineering 8vo,  6  oo 

15 


Church's  Notes  and  Examples  in  Mechanics 8vok  2  oo 

Compton's  First  Lessons  in  Metal- working i2mo,  i  50 

Compton  and  De  Groodt's  The  Speed  Lathe izmo,  i  50 

Cromwell's  Treatise  on  Toothed  Gearing i2mo,  i  50 

Treatise  on  Belts  and  Pulleys i2mo,  i  50 

Dana's  Text-book  of  Elementary  Mechanics  for  Colleges  and  Schools.  .i2mo,  i  50 

Dingey's  Machinery  Pattern  Making i2mo,  2  oo 

Dredge's  Record  of  the  Transportation  Exhibits  Building  of  the   World's 

Columbian  Exposition  of  1893 4to  half  morocco,  5  oo 

Du  Bois's  Elementary  Principles  of  Mechanics: 

Vol.     I.     Kinematics 8vo,  3  50 

Vol.    II.     Statics 8vo,  4  oo 

Vol.  HI.     Kinetics - 8vo,  3  50 

Mechanics  of  Engineering.     VoL    I Small  4to,  7  50 

VoL  II Small  4to,  10  oo 

Durley's  Kinematics  of  Machines 8vo,  4  oo 

Fitzgerald's  Boston  Machinist i6mo,  i  oo 

Flather's  Dynamometers,  and  the  Measurement  of  Power i2mo,  3  oo 

Rope  Driving i2mo,  2  oo 

Goss's  Locomotive  Sparks 8vo,  2  oo 

Hall's  Car  Lubrication i2mo,  i  oo 

Holly's  Art  of  Saw  Filing i8mo,        75 

James's  Kinematics  of  a  Point  and  the  Rational  Mechanics  of  a  Particle.  Sm  .8vc,2  oo 

*  Johnson's  (W.  W.)  Theoretical  Mechanics i2mo,  3  oo 

Johnson's  (L.  J.)  Statics  by  Graphic  and  Algebraic  Methods 8vo,  2  oo 

Jones's  Machine  Design: 

Part    I.     Kinematics  of  Machinery 8vo,  i  50 

Part  II.     Form,  Strength,  and  Proportions  of  Parts 8vo,  3  oo 

Kerr's  Power  and  Power  Transmission 8vo,  2  oo 

Lanza's  Applied  Mechanics 8vo,  7  50 

Leonard's  Machine  Shop,  Tools,  and  Methods 8vo,  4  oo 

*Lorenz's  Modern  Refrigerating  Machinery.      (Pope,  Haven,  and  Dean.). 8vo,  4  oo 

MacCord's  Kinematics;  or,  Practical  Mechanism 8vo,  5  oo 

Velocity  Diagrams 8vo,  i  50 

Maurer's  Technical  Mechanics 8vo,  4  oo 

Merriman's  Mechanics  of  Materials 8vo,  5  oo  . 

*  Elements  of  Mechanics i2mo,  i  oo 

*  Michie's  Elements  of  Analytical  Mechanics 8vo,  4  oo 

Reagan's  Locomotives:   Simple,  Compound,  and  Electric i2mo/  2  50 

Reid's  Course  in  Mechanical  Drawing 8vo,  2  oo 

Text-book  of  Mechanical  Drawing  and  Elementary  Machine  Design. 8vo,  3  oo 

Richards's  Compressed  Air I2mo,  i  50 

Robinson's  Principles  of  Mechanism 8vo ,  3  oo 

Ryan,  Norris,  and  Hoxie's  Electrical  Machinery.     Vol.  1 8vo,  2  50 

Schwamb  and  Merrill's  Elements  of  Mechanism 8vo,  3  oo 

Sinclair's  Locomotive-engine  Running  and  Management I2mo,  2  oo 

Smith's  (O.)  Press-working  of  Metals 8vo,  3  oo 

Smith's  (A.  W.)  Materials  of  Machines 12010,  i  oo 

Spangler,  Greene,  and  Marshall's  Elements  of  Steam-engineering 8vo,  3  oo 

Thurston's  Treatise  on  Friction  and  Lost  Y/ork  in    Machinery  and    Mill 

Work 8vo,  3  oo 

Animal  as  a  Machine  and  Prime  Motor,  and  the  Laws  of  Energetics. 

i2mo,  i  oo 

Warren's  Elements  of  Machine  Construction  and  Drawing 8vo,  7  50 

Weisbach's  Kinematics  and  Power  of  Transmission.   (Herrmann — Klein. ) .  8vo,  5  oo 

Machinery  of  Transmission  and  Governors.      (Herrmann — Klein. ).8vo,  5  oo 

Wood's  Elements  of  Analytical  Mechanics 8vo,  3  oo 

Principles  of  Elementary  Mechanics i2mo,  i  25 

Turbines .8vo,  2  50 

The  World's  Columbian  Exposition  of  1893 : 4to,  i  oo 

14 


METALLURGY. 

Egleston's  Metallurgy  of  Silver,  Gold,  and  Mercury: 

Vol.    1     Silver 8vo,  7  So 

Vol.  II.     Gold  and  Mercury 8vo,  7  SO 

**  Iles's  Lead-smelting.     (Postage  9  cents  additional.) I2mo,  2  50 

Keep's  Cast  Iron 8vo,  2  50 

Kunhardt's  Practice  of  Ore  Dressing  in  Europe 8vo,  i  50 

Le  Chatelier's  High-temperature  Measurements.  (Boudouard — Burgess.  )i2mo,  3  oo 

Metcalf's  Steel.     A  Manual  for  Steel-users-     i2mo,  2  oo 

Smith's  Materials  of  Machines i2mo,  i  oo 

Thurston's  Materials  of  Engineering.     In  Three  Parts 8vo.  8  oo 

Part    II.     Iron  and  Steel 8vo,  3  5<> 

Part  III.     A  Treatise  on  Brasses,  Bronzes,  and  Other  Alloys  and  their 

Constituents 8vo,  2  50 

Hike's  Modern  Electrolytic  Copper  Refining 8vo,  3  oo 

MINERALOGY. 

Barringer's  Description  of  Minerals  of-  Commercial  Value.    Oblong,  morocco,  2  50 

Boyd's  Resources  of  Southwest  Virginia , 8vo,  3  oo 

Map  of  Southwest  Virignia Pocket-book  form.  2  oo 

Brush's  Manual  of  Determinative  Mineralogy.     (Penfield.) 8vo,  4  oo 

Chester's  Catalogue  of  Minerals 8vo,  paper,  i  oo 

%              Cloth,  i  25 

Dictionary  of  the  Names  of  Minerals 8vo,  3  50 

Dana's  System  of  Mineralogy Large  8vo,  half  leather,  12  50 

First  Appendix  to  Dana's  New  "  System  of  Mineralogy." Large  8vo,  i  oo 

Text-book  of  Mineralogy 8vo,  4  oo 

Minerals  and  How  to  Study  Them i2mo,  i  50 

Catalogue  of  American  Localities  of  Minerals Large  8vo,  i  oo 

Manual  of  Mineralogy  and  Petrography i2mo,  2  oo 

Douglas's  Untechnical  Addresses  on  Technical  Subjects i2mo,  i  oo 

Eakle's  Mineral  Tables 8vo,  i  25 

Egleston's  Catalogue  of  Minerals  and  Synonyms Svo,  2  50 

Hussak's  The  Determination  of  Rock-forming  Minerals.    (Smith. ).  Small  Svo,  2  oo 

Merrill's  Non-metallic  Minerals:   Their  Occurrence  and  Uses 8vo,  4  oo 

*  Penfield's  Notes  on  Determinative  Mineralogy  and  Record  of  Mineral  Tests. 

Svor  paper,  o  50 
Rosenbusch's   Microscopical  Physiography   of   the   Rock-making  Minera  s. 

(Iddings.) Svo.  5  oo 

*  Tillman's  Text-book  of  Important  Minerals  and  Rocks „  .8vo.  2  oo 

Williams's  Manual  of  Lithology 8vo,  3  oo 

MINING. 

Beard's  Ventilation  of  Mines I2mo,  2  50 

Boyd's  Resources  of  Southwest  Virginia Svo,  3  oo 

Map  of  Southwest  Virginia Pocket  book  form,  2  oo 

Douglas's  Untechnical  Addresses  on  Technical  Subjects i2mo«  i  oo 

*  Drinker's  Tunneling,  Explosive  Compounds,  and  Rock  Drills.  ,4to,hf.  mor..  25  oo 

Eissler's  Modern  High  Explosives .   8vo.  4  oo 

Fowler's  Sewage  Works  Analyses i2mo,  2  oo 

Goodyear's  Coal-mines  of  the  Western  Coast  of  the  United  States i2mo.  2  50 

Ihlseng's  Manual  of  Mining Svo.  5  oo 

**  Iles's  Lead-smelting.     (Postage  gc.  additional.). I2mo.  2  50 

Kunhardt's  Practice  of  Ore  Dressing  in  Europe Svo,  i  go 

O'DriscoU's  Notes  on  the  Treatment  of  Gold  Ores 8vo,  2  oo 

*  Walke's  Lectures  on  Explosives 8vo,  4  oo 

Wilson's  Cyanide  Processes I2mo,  i  50 

Chlorination  Process I2mo,  I  50 

15 


Wilson's  Hydraulic  and  Placer  Mining I2mo,  2  oo 

Treatise  on  Practical  and  Theoretical  Mine  Ventilation i2mo',  i  25 

SANITARY  SCIENCE. 

Bashore's  Sanitation  of  a  Country  House i2mo,  i  oo 

FolwelTs  Sewerage.     (Designing,  Construction,  and  Maintenance.) 8vo,  3  09 

Water-supply  Engineering gyo,  4  oo 

Fuertes's  Water  and  Public  Health, i2mo,  i  50 

Water-filtration  Works i2mo,  2  50 

Gerhard's  Guide  to  Sanitary  House-inspection i6mo,  i  oo 

Goodrich's  Economic  Disposal  of  Town's  Refuse Demy  8vo,  3  50 

Hazen's  Filtration  of  Public  Water-supplies 8vo,  3  oo 

Leach's  The  Inspection  and  Analysis  of  Food  with  Special  Reference  to  State 

Control 8vo,  7  50 

Mason's  Water-supply.  (Considered  principally  from  a  Sanitary  Standpoint)  8vo,  4  oo 

Examination  of  Water.     (Chemical  and  Bacteriological.) i2mo,  i  25 

Merriman's  Elements  of  Sanitary  Engineering 8vo,  2  oo 

Ogden's  Sewer  Design I2mo,  2  oo 

Prescott  and  Winslow's  Elements  of  Water  Bacteriology,  with  Special  Refer- 
ence to  Sanitary  Water  Analysis I2mo,  i  25 

*  Price's  Handbook  on  Sanitation i2mo,"  i  50 

Richards's  Cost  of  Food.     A  Study  in  Dietaries iamo,  i  oo 

Cost  of  Living  as  Modified  by  Sanitaiy  Science i2mo,  i  oo 

Richards  and  Woodman's  Air,  Water,  and  Food  from  a  Sanitary  Stand- 
point     8vo,  2 

*  Richards  and  Williams's  The  Dietary  Computer 8vo,  i 

Rideal's  Sewage  and  Bacterial  Purification  of  Sewage 8vo, 

Turneaure  and  Russell's  Public  Water-supplies 8vo, 

Von  Behring's  Suppression  of  Tuberculosis.     (Bolduan.) i2mo,  i 

Whipple's  Microscopy  of  Drinking-water 8vo,  3 

WoodhulPs  Notes  on  Military  Hygiene i6mo,  i 

MISCELLANEOUS. 

De  Fursac's  Manual  of  Psychiatry.     (Rosanoff  and  Collins.)-  • .  .Large  12 mo,  2 
Emmons's  Geological  Guide-book  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  Excursion  of  the 

International  Congress  of  Geologists Large  8vo,  i 

Ferrel's  Popular  Treatise  on  the  Winds 8vo.  4 

Haines's  American  Railway  Management 12010,  2 

Mott's  Composition,  Digestibility,  and  Nutritive  Value  of  Food.  Mounted  chart,  i 

Fallacy  of  the  Present  Theory  of  Sound i6mo, 

Ricketts's  History  of  Rensselaer  Polytechnic  Institute,  1824-1894.  .Small  8vo, 

Rostoski's  Serum  Diagnosis.     (Bolduan.) i2mo.  i 

Rotherham's  Emphasized  New  Testament Large  8vo, 

Steel's  Treatise  on  the  Diseases  of  the  Dog 8vo, 

Totten's  Important  Question  in  Metrology 8vo,  2 

The  World's  Columbian  Exposition  of  1893 4*0, 

Von  Behring's  Suppression  of  Tuberculosis.     (Bolduan.) i2mo, 

Winslow's  Elements  of  Applied  Microscopy i2mo,  i 

Worcester  and  Atkinson.     Small  Hospitals,  Establishment  and  Maintenance; 

Suggestions  for  Hospital  Architecture :  Plans  for  Small  Hospital .  1 2mo ,  i 

HEBREW  AND  CHALDEE  TEXT-BOOKS. 

Green's  Elementary  Hebrew  Grammar i2mo,  i 

Hebrew  Chrestomathy 8vo,  2 

Gesenius's  Hebrew  and  Chaldee  Lexicon  tr   the  Old  Testament  Scriptures. 

(Tregelles.) Small  4to,  half  morocco,  5 

Lettews's  Hebrew  Bible 8vo»  * 

16 


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